United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland^{[note 7]} (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state^[7][8] located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. It spans an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land border with another sovereign state, sharing it with the Republic of Ireland.^[9][10] Apart from this land border, the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, theNorth Sea, the English Channel, and the Irish Sea.

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and unitary state. It is a country^[11][12]consisting of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales.^[13] It is governed by a parliamentary system with its seat of government in the capital city of London. There are three devolved national administrations, with varying powers^[14][15] in Belfast, Cardiff andEdinburgh, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland respectively. There are threeCrown Dependencies^[16] and fourteen overseas territories that are not constitutionally part of the UK.^[17] These territories are remnants of the British Empire, which at its height in 1922 encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface, the largest empire in history. As a result, British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.

The UK is a developed country, with the world's sixth largest economy by nominal GDP andeighth largest economy by purchasing power parity. It was the world's first industrialisedcountry^[18] and the world's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries,^[19] but the economic and social cost of two world wars and the decline of its empire in the latter half of the 20th century diminished its leading role in global affairs. The UK nevertheless remains agreat power with leading economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence. It is arecognised nuclear weapons state while its military expenditure ranks third or fourth in the world, depending on the method of calculation.^[20] It is a Member State of the European Union, a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, and a member of theCommonwealth of Nations, G8, G20, NATO, OECD, the Council of Europe and the World Trade Organization.

History

The Battle of Waterloo marked the end of theNapoleonic Wars and the start of Pax Britannica.

On 1 May 1707, the united Kingdom of Great Britain was created by the political union of theKingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland.^[21][22] This event was the result of theTreaty of Union that was agreed on 22 July 1706, and then ratified by both the Parliament of England and Parliament of Scotland each passing an Act of Union in 1707.^[23] The kingdoms of England and Scotland, together with the kingdom of Ireland, had already been in a personal union as a result of the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when James VI, King of Scots inherited the Kingdoms of England and Ireland and moved his court from Edinburgh to London. However, until 1707, all three remained separate political entities and retained their separate political institutions.^[24][25] Almost a century later the Kingdom of Ireland merged with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the passing of the Act of Union 1800.^[26] In this way, the United Kingdom became the union of the kingdoms of England, Ireland and Scotland.^[24][25] Disputes withinIreland over the terms of Irish Home Rule led eventually to the partition of the island in 1921,^[27] with Dominion status for the Irish Free State in 1922 while Northern Ireland remained part of the UK.^[28] As a result, in 1927, the formal title of the UK was changed to its current form, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.^[29]

In the 18th century, the United Kingdom played an important role in developing Western ideas of the parliamentary system as well as making significant contributions to literature, the arts, and science.^[30] The UK-led Industrial Revolution transformed the country and fuelled the growing British Empire. During this time the UK, like other great powers, was involved in colonial exploitation, including the Atlantic slave trade, although with the passing of the Slave Trade Act in 1807 the UK took a leading role in combating the trade in slaves.^[31]

Infantry of the Royal Irish Rifles during the Battle of the Somme. More than 885,000 British soldiers lost their lives on the battlefields of World War I.

After the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815), the UK emerged as the principal naval and economic power of the 19th century (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830 to 1930)^[32] and remained a foremost power into the mid 20th century.^[33]Beside Russia, France and (after 1917) the USA, the British were one of the major powers opposing Germany and its allies in World War I (1914–18).^[34] Engaged in much of its empire, several regions in Europe and increasingly taking a major role on the Western front, the armed forces grew to over five million people.^[35]

The nation suffered an estimated two and a half million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt.^[35] After the war the United Kingdom received the League of Nations mandate over former German and Ottoman colonies and the British Empire had expanded to its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world's land surface and a quarter of its population.^[36] The Great Depression(1929–32) occurred at a time when the UK was still far from having recovered from the effects of the war and led to hardship and political and social unrest.^[37]

The United Kingdom was one of the three main Allies of World War II. Following the defeat of its European allies in the first year of the war, the United Kingdom continued the fight against Germany, which took form in these years with the Battle of Britain. After the victory, the UK was one of the Big Three powers that met to plan the postwar world. The war left the United Kingdom financially damaged. However, Marshall Aid and loans taken from both the United States and Canada helped the UK on the road to recovery.^[38]

Territories that were at one time part of the British Empire. Current British Overseas Territories are underlined in red.

The immediate postwar years saw the establishment of the Welfare State, including comprehensive public health services. As a result of a shortage of workers, initial postwar policy was to bring in workers from Germany, Poland and throughout Europe. However, the Colonial office persuaded the British Government that it should offer employment to British subjects of the Commonwealth, creating a multiethnicBritain.^[39] Although the new postwar limits of Britain's political role were confirmed by the Suez Crisis of 1956, the international spread of the English language meant the continuing influence of its literature and culture, while from the 1960s its popular culture also found influence abroad. Following a period of global economic slowdown and industrial strife in the 1970s, 1984 saw the inflow of substantial North Sea oilrevenues and economic growth.^[40]

Inequalities between the Protestant and Catholic groups in Northern Ireland, combined with fears among unionists of the claim by the Republic of Ireland to the whole island, led to a breakout of violence in 1966.^[41][42]Paramilitary groups were created by both sides, and after riots in Derry in 1969 the British Army was called in to try to maintain peace.^[43] On 24 March 1972 the Parliament of Northern Ireland was suspended, and Direct Rule was introduced from London.^[44] Eventually, the Anglo-Irish Agreement was signed in November 1985, in which the Republic of Ireland acknowledged the United Kingdom's rule in the North in exchange for some say in governance.^[45] Negotiations eventually led to the 1998 Good Friday Agreement between the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland reflecting the terms of a peace settlement supported by most of the main political parties. The Agreement, approved by referendums in both halves of Ireland, created a new Northern Ireland Assembly and a power-sharing executive. The constitution of the Republic was amended to replace a claim it made to the territory of Northern Ireland while also acknowledging the nationalist desire for a united Ireland. The IRA and most other armed organisations ended their activities and destroyed their weaponry.

The United Kingdom was one of the 12 founding members of the European Union at its launch in 1992 with the signing of the Maastricht Treaty. Prior to that, it had been a member of the EU's forerunner, the European Economic Community (EEC), from 1973. The end of the 20th century saw major changes to the governance of the UK with the establishment of devolved national administrations for Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales following pre-legislative referendums.^[46]

Geography

Main article: Geography of the United Kingdom

The topography of the UK.

The total area of the United Kingdom is approximately 243,610 square kilometres (94,060 sq mi). It consists of the island of Great Britain, the northeastern one-sixth of the island of Ireland, and smaller surrounding islands. It lies between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea, coming within 35 kilometres (22 mi) of the coast of northern France, from which it is separated by the English Channel.^[5]As of 1993 10% of the UK was forested, 46% used for pastures, and 25% used for agriculture.^[47] TheRoyal Greenwich Observatory, in London, is the defining point of the Prime Meridian.

The United Kingdom lies between latitudes 49° and 61° N, and longitudes 9° W to 2° E. Northern Ireland shares a 360-kilometre (224 mi) land boundary with the Republic of Ireland.^[5] The coastline of Great Britain is 17,820 kilometres (11,073 mi) long.^[48] It is connected to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel, which at 50 kilometres (31 mi) (38 kilometres (24 mi) underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world.^[49]

England accounts for just over half of the total area of the UK, covering 130,395 square kilometres (50,350 sq mi).^[50] Most of the country consists of lowland terrain,^[47] with mountainous terrain north-west of theTees-Exe line including the Cumbrian Mountains of the Lake District, the Pennines and limestone hills of the Peak District, Exmoor and Dartmoor. The main rivers and estuaries are the Thames, Severn and theHumber. England's highest mountain is Scafell Pike (978 metres (3,209 ft)), which is in the Lake District. Its principal rivers are the Severn, Thames, Humber, Tees, Tyne, Tweed, Avon, Exe and Mersey.^[47]

Ben Nevis, in Scotland, is the highest point in the British Isles

Scotland accounts for just under a third of the total area of the UK, covering 78,772 square kilometres (30,410 sq mi),^[51] including nearly eight hundred islands,^[52] predominantly west and north of the mainland, notably the Hebrides, Orkney Islands and Shetland Islands. The topography of Scotland is distinguished by the Highland Boundary Fault – a geological rock fracture – which traverses Scotland from Arran in the west to Stonehaven in the east.^[53] The faultline separates two distinctively different regions; namely the Highlands to the north and west and the lowlands to the south and east. The more rugged Highland region contains the majority of Scotland's mountainous land, including Ben Nevis, which at 1,343 metres (4,406 ft) is the highest point in the British Isles.^[54] Lowland areas, especially the narrow waist of land between the Firth of Clyde and theFirth of Forth known as the Central Belt, are flatter and home to most of the population includingGlasgow, Scotland's largest city, and Edinburgh, its capital and political centre.

Wales accounts for less than a tenth of the total area of the UK, covering 20,779 square kilometres (8,020 sq mi).^[55] Wales is mostly mountainous, though South Wales is less mountainous than North and mid Wales. The main population and industrial areas are in South Wales, consisting of the coastal cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport and the South Wales Valleys to their north. The highest mountains in Wales are in Snowdonia, and include Snowdon (Welsh: Yr Wyddfa), which, at 1,085 metres (3,560 ft) is the highest peak in Wales.^[47] The 14 (or possibly 15) Welsh mountains over 3,000 feet (914 m) high are known collectively as the Welsh 3000s. Wales has over 1,200 km (750 miles) of coastline. There are several islands off the Welsh mainland, the largest of which isAnglesey (Ynys Môn) in the northwest.

Northern Ireland accounts for just 14,160 square kilometres (5,470 sq mi) and is mostly hilly. It includes Lough Neagh, at 388 square kilometres (150 sq mi), the largest body of water in the UK and Ireland.^[56] The highest peak in Northern Ireland is Slieve Donard at 852 metres (2,795 ft) in the Mourne Mountains.^[47]

Climate

Main article: Climate of the United Kingdom

The United Kingdom has a temperate climate, with plentiful rainfall all year round.^[5] The temperature varies with the seasons but seldom drops below −10 °C (14.0 °F) or rises above 35 °C (95 °F).^{[citation needed]} The prevailing wind is from the southwest, bearing frequent spells of mild and wet weather from the Atlantic Ocean.^[5] Eastern parts are most sheltered from this wind and are therefore the driest. Atlantic currents, warmed by the Gulf Stream, bring mild winters, especially in the west, where winters are wet, especially over high ground. Summers are warmest in the south east of England, being closest to the European mainland, and coolest in the north. Snowfall can occur in winter and early spring, though it rarely settles to great depth away from high ground.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative geography of the United Kingdom

Administrative units of the United Kingdom

The structure of administrative divisions in the UK is multi-layered and non-uniform. Each of the four countries has its own system of administrative and geographic demarcation which often have origins that pre-date the formation of the United Kingdom itself. Consequently, there is "no common stratum of administrative unit encompassing the United Kingdom".^[57] Until the 19th century there was little change to those arrangements, but since then there has been a constant evolution of role and function.^[58] Change did not occur in England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales in a uniform manner, and the devolution of power over local government to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland means that future changes are unlikely to be uniform either.

The organisation of local government in England is complex, with the distribution of functions varying according to the local arrangements. Legislation concerning local government in England is decided by the UK parliament and the government of the United Kingdom, because England does not have a devolved parliament. The upper-tier subdivisions of England are the nine Government office regions or European Union government office regions.^[59] One region, Greater London, has had a directly elected assembly and mayor since 2000 following popular support for the proposal in a referendum.^[60] It was intended that other regions would also be given their own elected regional assemblies, but a rejection by a referendum in 2004 of a proposed assembly in the North Eastregion stopped this idea in its tracks.^[61] Below the region level, London consists of 32 London boroughs and the rest of England has either county councils and district councils or unitary authorities. Councillors are elected by First Past The Post in single member wards or by the multi-member plurality system in multi-member wards.^[62]

Local government in Northern Ireland has, since 1973, been organised into 26 district councils, each elected by single transferable vote with powers limited to services like collecting waste, controlling dogs, and maintaining parks and cemeteries.^[63] However, on 13 March 2008, the Executive agreed on proposals to create 11 new councils to replace the present system^[64]and the next local elections will be postponed until 2011 to facilitate this.^[65]

Local government in Scotland is divided on a basis of 32 council areas, with wide variation in both size and population. The cities of Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Dundee are separate council areas as also is Highland Council, which includes a third of Scotland's area but just over 200,000 people. The power invested in local authorities is administered by elected councillors, of which there are currently 1,222^[66] who are each paid a part-time salary. Elections are conducted by single transferable vote in multi-member wards that elect either three or four councillors. Each council elects a Provost or Convenor to chair meetings of the council and to act as a figurehead for the area. Councillors are subject to a code of conduct enforced by the Standards Commission for Scotland.^[67] The representative association of Scotland's local authorities is the Convention of Scottish Local Authorities (COSLA).^[68]

Local government in Wales consists of 22 unitary authorities, including the cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, which are separate unitary authorities in their own right.^[69] Elections are held every four years by First Past The Post^[70] with the most recent elections being in May 2008. The Welsh Local Government Association represents the interests of local authorities in Wales.^[71]

Dependencies

Main articles: British overseas territories and Crown Dependencies

The fourteen British overseas territories are indicated in red

The United Kingdom has sovereignty over seventeen territories which do not form part of the United Kingdom itself, 14 British Overseas Territories^[72] and three Crown Dependencies.

The fourteen British Overseas Territories are Anguilla; Bermuda; the British Antarctic Territory; the British Indian Ocean Territory; the British Virgin Islands; the Cayman Islands; the Falkland Islands; Gibraltar; Montserrat; Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha; the Turks and Caicos Islands; the Pitcairn Islands; South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands; and the Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus.^[73] British claims in Antarctica are not universally recognised.^[74] Collectively Britain's overseas territories encompass an approximate land area of 667,018 square miles (1,728,000 km²) and a population of approximately 260,000 people.^[75] They are the remnants of the British Empire; several have specifically voted to remain British territories.

The Crown Dependencies are British possessions of the Crown, as opposed to overseas territories of the United Kingdom.^[76] They comprise the Channel Island Bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey in the English Channel, and the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea. Being independently administered jurisdictions, none forms part of the United Kingdom or of the European Union, although the UK government manages their foreign affairs and defence and the UK Parliament has the authority to legislate on their behalf. However, the power to pass legislation affecting the islands ultimately rests with their own respective legislative assemblies, with the assent of the Crown (Privy Council, or in the case of the Isle of Man in certain circumstances the Lieutenant-Governor).^[77] Since 2005, each Crown dependency has had a Chief Ministeras head of government.

Politics

Main articles: Politics of the United Kingdom, Monarchy of the United Kingdom, and Elections in the United Kingdom

HM Queen Elizabeth II, Queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms

The United Kingdom is a unitary state under a constitutional monarchy. Queen Elizabeth II is head of state of the UK as well as of fifteen other independent Commonwealth countries. The United Kingdom has anuncodified constitution,^[78] as do only three other countries in the world.^{[note 8]} The Constitution of the United Kingdom thus consists mostly of a collection of disparate written sources, including statutes, judge-made case law, and international treaties. As there is no technical difference between ordinary statutes and "constitutional law," the UK Parliament can perform "constitutional reform" simply by passing Acts of Parliament and thus has the political power to change or abolish almost any written or unwritten element of the constitution. However, no Parliament can pass laws that future Parliaments cannot change.^[79]

Government

The UK has a parliamentary government based on the Westminster system that has been emulated around the world—a legacy of the British Empire. The Parliament of the United Kingdom that meets in the Palace of Westminster has two houses: an elected House of Commons and an appointed House of Lords, and any Bill passed requires Royal Assent to become law. It is the ultimate legislative authority in the United Kingdom since the devolved parliament in Scotland and devolved assemblies in Northern Ireland, and Walesare not sovereign bodies and could be abolished by the UK parliament.

The position of Prime Minister, the UK's head of government,^[80] belongs to the Member of Parliament who can obtain the confidence of a majority in the House of Commons, usually the current leader of the largest political party in that chamber. The Prime Minister and Cabinet are formally appointed by the Monarch to form Her Majesty's Government, though the Prime Minister chooses the Cabinet, and by convention HM The Queen respects the Prime Minister's choices.^[81]

The Palace of Westminster, seat of both houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom

The Cabinet is traditionally drawn from members of the Prime Minister's party in both legislative houses, and mostly from the House of Commons, to which they are responsible. Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and Cabinet, all of whom are sworn into Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council, and become Ministers of the Crown. The Rt. Hon. David Cameron, leader of the Conservative Party, has been Prime Minister, First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service since 11 May 2010.^[82] For elections to the House of Commons, the UK is currently divided into 650 constituencies^[83] with each electing a single Member of Parliament bysimple plurality. General elections are called by the Monarch when the Prime Minister so advises. The Parliament Act (1911) requires that a new election must be called within five years of the previous general election.^[84]

The UK's three major political parties are the Conservative Party, the Labour Party, and the Liberal Democrats, who won between them 622 out of 650 seats available in the House of Commons: 621 seats at the 2010 general election^[85] and 1 more at the delayed by-election in Thirsk and Malton.^[86] Most of the remaining seats were won by minor parties that only contest elections in one part of the UK such as the Scottish National Party (Scotland only), Plaid Cymru (Wales only), and the Democratic Unionist Party, Social Democratic and Labour Party, Ulster Unionist Party, and Sinn Féin (Northern Ireland only, though Sinn Féin also contests elections in Ireland). In accordance with party policy, no elected Sinn Féin Member of Parliament has ever attended the House of Commons to speak in the House on behalf of their constituents as Members of Parliament are required to take an oath of allegiance to the Monarch. However, the current five Sinn Féin MPs have since 2002 made use of the offices and other facilities available at Westminster.^[87] For elections to the European Parliament, the UK currently has 72 MEPs, elected in 12 multi-member constituencies.^[88]

Devolved national administrations

Main articles: Northern Ireland Executive, Scottish Government, and Welsh Assembly Government

The Scottish Parliament Building inHolyrood is the seat of the Scottish Parliament

Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales each has its own government or Executive, led by a First Minister, and a devolved, unicameral legislature. England, the largest country of the United Kingdom, has no devolved executive or legislature and is administered and legislated for directly by the UK government and parliament on all issues. This situation has given rise to the so-calledWest Lothian question which concerns the fact that MPs from Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales can vote, sometimes decisively,^[89] on matters affecting England that are handled by devolved legislatures for their own constituencies.^[90]

The Scottish Government and Parliament have wide ranging powers over any matter that has not been specifically 'reserved' to the UK parliament, including education, healthcare, Scots law andlocal government.^[91] Following their victory at the 2007 elections, the pro-independence Scottish National Party (SNP) formed a minority government with its leader, Alex Salmond, becoming First Minister of Scotland.^[92] The pro-union parties responded to the electoral success of the SNP by creating a Commission on Scottish Devolution^[93] which reported in 2009, recommending that additional powers should be devolved, including control of half the income tax raised in Scotland.^[94]

The Welsh Assembly Government and the National Assembly for Wales have more limited powers than those devolved to Scotland,^[95] although following the passing of the Government of Wales Act 2006, the Assembly can now legislate in some areas through Assembly Measures passed within clearly defined areas based upon, Legislative Competence Orders which can be granted on a case by case basis.^[96] The current Welsh Assembly Government was formed several weeks after the 2007 elections, following a brief period of minority administration, when Plaid Cymru joined Labour in a coalition government under the leadership of First MinisterRhodri Morgan until December 2009,^[97] after which Carwyn Jones became First Minister.^[98]

The Northern Ireland Executive and Assembly have powers closer to those already devolved to Scotland. The Northern Ireland Executive is led by a diarchy, currently First Minister Peter Robinson (Democratic Unionist Party) and deputy First Minister Martin McGuinness (Sinn Féin).^[99]

Law and criminal justice

Main article: Law of the United Kingdom

The Royal Courts of Justice of England and Wales.

The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system since it was created by the political union of previously independent countries, with Article 19 of the Treaty of Union guaranteeing the continued existence of Scotland's separate legal system.^[100] Today the UK has three distinctsystems of law: English law, Northern Ireland law and Scots law. Recent constitutional changes saw a new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom come into being in October 2009 to replace theAppellate Committee of the House of Lords.^[101][102] The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, including the same members as the Supreme Court, is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the UK overseas territories, and the British crown dependencies.

Both English law, which applies in England and Wales, and Northern Ireland law are based oncommon-law principles.^[103] The essence of common law is that, subject to statute, the law is developed by judges in court, applying statute, precedent and common sense to the facts before them, to give explanatory judgements of the relevant legal principles, which are reported and binding in future similar cases (stare decisis).^[104] The courts of England and Wales are headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, theHigh Court of Justice (for civil cases) and the Crown Court (for criminal cases). The Supreme Court is the highest court in the land for both criminal and civil appeal cases in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland and any decision it makes is binding on every other court in the same jurisdiction, and often has a persuasive effect in other jurisdictions.^[105]

The High Court of Justiciary—the supreme criminal court ofScotland.

Scots law, a hybrid system based on both common-law and civil-law principles, applies in Scotland. The chief courts are the Court of Session, for civil cases,^[106] and the High Court of Justiciary, for criminal cases.^[107] The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom serves as the highest court of appeal for civil cases under Scots law.^[108] Sheriff courts deal with most civil and criminal cases including conducting criminaltrials with a jury, known as sheriff solemn court, or with a sheriff and no jury, known as sheriff summary Court.^[109] The Scots legal system is unique in having three possible verdicts for a criminal trial: "guilty", "not guilty" and "not proven". Both "not guilty" and "not proven" result in an acquittal with no possibility ofretrial.^[110]

Crime in England and Wales increased in the period between 1981 and 1995, though since that peak there has been an overall fall of 48% in crime from 1995 to 2007/08,^[111] according to crime statistics. The prison population of England and Wales has almost doubled over the same period, to over 80,000, giving England and Wales the highest rate of incarceration in Western Europe at 147 per 100,000.^[112] Her Majesty's Prison Service, which reports to the Ministry of Justice, manages most of the prisons within England and Wales. Crime in Scotland fell to its lowest recorded level for 32 years crime in 2009/10, falling by ten percent in the last year.^[113] At the same time, Scotland's prison population, at over 8,000,^[114] is hitting record levels and is well above design capacity.^[115] The Scottish Prison Service, which reports to theCabinet Secretary for Justice, manages Scotland's prisons.

In 2006 a report by the Surveillance Studies Network found that the UK had the highest level of mass surveillance among industrialised western nations.^[116]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of the United Kingdom

The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom,David Cameron, and the President of the United States, Barack Obama, during the2010 G-20 Toronto summit.

The United Kingdom is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, G8, G7, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, Council of Europe, OSCE, and a member state of the European Union. The UK has placed a particular emphasis on its "Special Relationship" with the United States.^[117] Britain's other close allies include European Union and NATO members, Commonwealth nations and others such as Japan. Britain's global presence and influence is further amplified through its trading relations, official development assistance, and its armed forces, which as of 2008 maintained at least twenty military deployments around the globe.^[118]

Military

Main article: British Armed Forces

The United Kingdom fields one of the most technologically advanced and best trained armed forces in the world.^[119][120] According to various sources, including the Ministry of Defence, the UK has the third or fourth highest military expenditure in the world, despite only having the 25th largest military in terms of manpower. Total defence spending currently accounts for 2.5% of total national GDP.^[121] The British Army, Royal Navy and Royal Air Force are collectively known as the British Armed Forces and officially as HM Armed Forces. The three forces are managed by the Ministry of Defence and controlled by theDefence Council, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence.

The UK maintains the largest air force and navy in the EU and second largest in NATO. The Royal Navy is a blue-water navy, currently one of only three, along with the French Navy and the United States Navy.^[122] The Ministry of Defence signed contracts worth £3.2bn to build two new supercarrier sized aircraft carriers on 3 July 2008.^[123] In early 2009, the British Army had a reported strength of 105,750, the Royal Air Force had 43,300 personnel and the Navy 38,160.^[124] The United Kingdom Special Forces, such as the Special Air Service and Special Boat Service, provide troops trained for quick, mobile, military responses in counter-terrorism, land, maritime and amphibious operations, often where secrecy or covert tactics are required. There are reserve forces supporting the Active military. These include the Territorial Army, theRoyal Naval Reserve, Royal Marines Reserve and the Royal Auxiliary Air Force. This puts total active and reserve duty military personnel at approximately 404,090.^[124]

British troops in Afghanistan as a part of the International Security Assistance Force

The British Armed Forces are charged with protecting the United Kingdom and its overseas territories, promoting the United Kingdom's global security interests, and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. They are active and regular participants in NATO, including the Allied Rapid Reaction Corps, as well as the Five Power Defence Arrangements, RIMPAC, and other worldwide coalition operations. Overseas garrisons and facilities are maintained in Ascension Island, Belize,Brunei, Canada, Diego Garcia, the Falkland Islands, Germany, Gibraltar, Kenya, Cyprus, andQatar.^[125]

Despite the United Kingdom's military capabilities, recent pragmatic defence policy has a stated assumption that "the most demanding operations" would be undertaken as part of a coalition.^[126]Setting aside the intervention in Sierra Leone, operations in Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan and Iraqmay all be taken as precedent. The last war in which the British military fought alone was theFalklands War of 1982, in which they were victorious.

Economy

Main article: Economy of the United Kingdom

London is the largest financial centre in the world alongside New York.^{[127][128][129]}

The UK has a partially regulated free market economy. Based on market exchange rates, the UK is today the sixth largest economy in the world and the third largest in Europe afterGermany and France, after having fallen behind France in 2008 for the first time in over a decade.^[130] In recent years, the UK economy has been managed in accordance with principles of market liberalisation and low taxation and regulation. Government involvement throughout the economy is exercised by the Chancellor of the Exchequer. Since 1997, theBank of England's Monetary Policy Committee, headed by the Governor of the Bank of England, has been responsible for setting interest rates at the level necessary to achieve the overall inflation target for the economy that is set by the Chancellor each year.^[131] In July 2007, the UK had government debt at 35.5% of GDP.^[132] This figure rose to 56.8% of GDP by July 2009.^[133] On 23 January 2009, Government figures from the Office for National Statistics showed that the UK was officially in recession for the first time since 1991.^[134] It entered a recession in the final quarter of 2008, accompanied by rising unemployment which increased from 5.2% in May 2008 to 7.6% in May 2009. By January 2011, the unemployment rate among 18 to 24-year-olds had risen from 11.9% to 20.3%, the highest since current records began in 1992.^[135]

The Industrial Revolution started in the UK^[136] with an initial concentration on the textile industry, followed by other heavy industries such asshipbuilding, coal mining, and steel production.^[137][138] The empire created an overseas market for British products, allowing the UK to dominate international trade in the 19th century. However, as other nations industrialised, coupled with economic decline after two world wars, the United Kingdom began to lose its competitive advantage and heavy industry declined, by degrees, throughout the 20th century. Manufacturing remains a significant part of the economy, but accounted for only one-sixth of national output in 2003.^[139]

The Bank of England; the central bank of the United Kingdom.

The currency of the UK is the pound sterling, represented by the symbol £. The Bank of England is the central bank, responsible for issuing currency. Banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover the issue. Pound sterling is also used as a reserve currency by other governments and institutions, and is the third-largest after the U.S. dollar and the euro.^[140] The UK chose not to join the euro at the currency's launch. In 2007, Prime Minister Gordon Brown ruled out membership for the foreseeable future, saying that the decision not to join had been right for Britain and for Europe.^[141] The government of Prime Minister Tony Blair had pledged to hold a public referendum for deciding membership should "five economic tests" be met. In 2005, more than half (55%) of the UK were against adopting the currency, while 30% were in favour.^[142]

London is a major centre for international business and commerce and is the leader of the three "command centres" for the global economy (along with New York City and Tokyo).^[143] It is the world's largest financial centre with the London Stock Exchange, the London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange, and theLloyd's of London insurance market all based in the City of London. London is also a major legal centre, with four of the six largest law firms in the world headquartered there.^[144] It has the largest concentration of foreign bank branches in the world. Many multinational companies that are not primarily UK-based have chosen to site their European or rest-of-world headquarters in London: an example is the US financial services firm Citigroup. The Scottish capital, Edinburgh, has one of the large financial centres of Europe^[145] and is the headquarters of theRoyal Bank of Scotland Group, one of the world's largest banks. The creative industries accounted for 7% GVA in 2005 and grew at an average of 6% per annum between 1997 and 2005.^[146]

The Airbus A380 has wings and engines manufactured in the UK.

The British motor industry is a significant part of the manufacturing sector, although it has diminished with the collapse of the MG Rover Group and most of the industry is foreign owned. Civil and defence aircraft production is led by BAE Systems, the second largest defence contractor in the world,^[147]and the continental European firm EADS, the owner of Airbus. Rolls-Royce holds a major share of the global aerospace engines market. The chemical and pharmaceutical industry is strong in the UK, with the world's second and sixth largest pharmaceutical firms (GlaxoSmithKline and AstraZeneca, respectively)^[148] being based in the UK.

The UK service sector, however, has grown substantially, and now makes up about 73% of GDP.^[149]The service sector is dominated by financial services, especially in banking and insurance. Tourism is very important to the British economy. With over 27 million tourists arriving in 2004, the United Kingdom is ranked as the sixth major tourist destination in the world.^[150] London, by a considerable margin, is the most visited city in the world with 15.6 million visitors in 2006, ahead of 2nd placed Bangkok (10.4 million visitors) and 3rd placed Paris (9.7 million).^[151]

The poverty line in the UK is commonly defined as being 60% of the median household income.^{[note 9]} In 2007-2008, 13.5 million people, or 22% of the population, lived below this line. This is a higher level of relative poverty than all but four other EU members.^[152] In the same year, 4.0 million children, 31% of the total, lived in households below the poverty line, after housing costs were taken into account. This is a decrease of 400,000 children since 1998-1999.^[153]

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in the United Kingdom

Sir Isaac Newton

The United Kingdom has played a leading role in the advancement of science.^[5] It led the industrial revolution and has produced many scientists and engineers credited with important advances,^[136]including;

• The laws of motion and illumination of gravity, by physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist and theologian, Sir Isaac Newton
• The unification of electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell
• The discovery of hydrogen, by Henry Cavendish
• The steam locomotive, by Richard Trevithick and Andrew Vivian
• The theory of aerodynamics, by Sir George Cayley
• The world's first working television system, and colour television, by John Logie Baird^[154][155]
• The invention of the jet engine, by Frank Whittle
• Evolution by natural selection, by Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin

• The Turing machine, by Alan Turing, the basis of the modern computer.^[156]
• The invention of the hovercraft, by Christopher Cockerell
• The electric motor, by Michael Faraday, who largely made electricity viable for use in technology
• The first practical telephone, patented by Alexander Graham Bell.^[157]
• The structure of DNA, by Francis Crick and others
• The first public steam railway, by George Stephenson
• The invention of the World Wide Web, by Tim Berners-Lee.^[158]
• Theories in cosmology, quantum gravity and black holes, by Stephen Hawking
• The first commercial electrical telegraph, co-invented by Sir William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone.^[159][160]
• The invention of the incandescent light bulb, by Joseph Swan
• The creation of postage and modern postal service, by Sir Rowland Hill
• The discovery of penicillin, by biologist and pharmacologist, Sir Alexander Fleming.^[161]

Notable civil engineering projects, whose pioneers included Isambard Kingdom Brunel, contributed to the advancement of railway transport systems. Other advances pioneered in the UK include the marine chronometer, the jet engine, modern bicycle, electric lighting, steam turbine, electromagnet, stereo sound, motion picture, the screw propeller, the internal combustion engine, military radar, electronic computer, photography, aeronautics, soda water, IVF, nursing, antisepticsurgery, vaccination, antibiotics.

Scientific journals produced in the UK include Nature, the British Medical Journal and The Lancet. In 2006, it was reported that the UK provided 9 percent of the world's scientific research papers and a 12 per cent share of citations, the second highest in the world after the US.^[162] In the 1950s, the UK had more Physics Nobel Prizes than any other nation,^[163] despite its relatively small size.

Transport

Main article: Transport in the United Kingdom

Heathrow Terminal 5 building. London Heathrow Airport has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world.^[164][165]

There are 394,428 kilometres (245,086 mi) of paved roads running throughout the UK, roads with a motorway network of 3,519 kilometres (2,187 mi).^[5] There are a further 213,750 kilometres (132,818 mi) of paved roads. In 2009 there were a total of 34 million licensed vehicles in Great Britain.^[166] The rail network of the United Kingdom covers 16,454 kilometres (10,224 mi). The 16,151 kilometres (10,036 mi) in Great Britain is standard gauge, while the 303 kilometres (188 mi) in Northern Ireland is broad gauge.^[5] Plans are now being considered to build new high speed railway lines by 2025.^[167]

In the year from October 2009 to September 2010 UK airports handled a total of 211.4 million passengers.^[168] In that period the three largest airports were London Heathrow Airport(65.6 million passengers), Gatwick Airport (31.5 million passengers) and London Stansted Airport(18.9 million passengers).^[168] London Heathrow Airport, located 24 kilometres (15 mi) west of the capital, has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world^[164][165] and is the hub for the UK flag carrier British Airways, as well as BMI and Virgin Atlantic.^[169]

Energy

Main article: Energy in the United Kingdom

An oil platform in the North Sea

In 2006 the UK was the world's ninth-largest consumer of energy and the 15th largest producer.^[170] In 2007 the UK had a total energy output of 9.5 quadrillion Btus, of which the composition was oil (38%), natural gas (36%), coal (13%), nuclear (11%) and other renewables (2%).^[171] In 2009, the UK produced 1.5 million barrels per day (bbl/d) of oil and consumed 1.7 million bbl/d.^[172] Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of oil since 2005.^[172] As of 2010 the UK has around 3.1 billion barrels of proven crude oil reserves, the largest of any EU member state.^[172]

In 2009 the UK was the 13th largest producer of natural gas in the world and the largest producer in the EU.^[173] Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of natural gas since 2004.^[173] In 2009 the UK produced 19.7 million tons of coal and consumed 60.2 million tons.^[171] In 2005 it had proven recoverable coal reserves of 171 million tons.^[171] It has been estimated that identified onshore areas have the potential to produce between 7 billion tonnes and 16 billion tonnes of coal throughunderground coal gasification (UCG).^[174] Based on current UK coal consumption, these volumes represent reserves that could last the UK between 200 and 400 years.^[175]

The UK is home to a number of large energy companies, including two of the six oil and gas "supermajors" - BP and Royal Dutch Shell - andBG Group.^[176][177]

Demographics

Main article: Demography of the United Kingdom

A Census occurs simultaneously in all parts of the UK every ten years.^[178] The Office for National Statistics is responsible for collecting data for England and Wales with the General Register Office for Scotland and the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency each being responsible for censuses in their respective countries.^[179] At the most recent census in 2001, the total population of the United Kingdom was 58,789,194, the third largest in the European Union, the fifth largest in the Commonwealth and the twenty-first largest in the world. By mid-2009, this was estimated to have grown to 61,792,000.^[180] In 2008, natural population growth overtook net migration as the main contributor to population growth for the first time since 1998.^[181] Between 2001 and 2008, the population increased by an average annual rate of 0.5 per cent. This compares to 0.3 per cent per year in the period 1991 to 2001, and 0.2 per cent in the decade 1981 to 1991.^[181] Published in 2008, the mid-2007 population estimates revealed that, for the first time, the UK was home to more people of pensionable age than children under the age of 16.^[182] It has been estimated that the number of people aged 100 or over will rise steeply, to reach over 626,000 by 2080.^[183]

England's population in mid-2008 was estimated to be 51.44 million.^[181] It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world with 383 people resident per square kilometre in mid-2003,^[184] with a particular concentration in London and the South East.^[185] The mid-2008 estimates put Scotland's population at 5.17 million, Wales at 2.99 million and Northern Ireland at 1.78 million,^[181] with much lower population densities than England. Compared to England's 383 inhabitants per square kilometre (990 /sq mi), the corresponding figures were 142 /km²(370 /sq mi) for Wales, 125 /km² (320 /sq mi) for Northern Ireland and just 65 /km² (170 /sq mi) for Scotland in mid-2003.^[184] In percentage terms, Northern Ireland has had the fastest growing population of any country of the UK in each of the four years to mid-2008.^[181]

In 2008, the average total fertility rate (TFR) across the UK was 1.96 children per woman.^[186] While a rising birth rate is contributing to current population growth, it remains considerably below the 'baby boom' peak of 2.95 children per woman in 1964,^[187] below the replacement rate of 2.1, but higher than the 2001 record low of 1.63.^[186] Scotland had the lowest fertility at only 1.8 children per woman, while Northern Ireland had the highest at 2.11 children in 2008.^[186]

Urbanisation

Main articles: List of largest United Kingdom settlements by population and List of conurbations in the United Kingdom

The capitals of the individual countries of the UK are: Belfast (Northern Ireland), Cardiff (Wales), Edinburgh (Scotland) and London (England); the latter is also the capital of the UK as a whole.^[5]

The largest conurbations are:

• Greater London Urban Area – 8.5 million
• West Midlands conurbation – 2.3 million
• Greater Manchester Urban Area – 2.2 million
• West Yorkshire Urban Area – 1.5 million

Largest cities of United Kingdom 2001 Census
view · talk · edit London Birmingham
	Rank	City Name	English Region/Country	Pop.	Rank	City Name	English Region/Country	Pop.	view · talk · edit Glasgow Liverpool
	1	London	Greater London	7,172,091	11	Coventry	West Midlands	303,475
	2	Birmingham	West Midlands	970,892	12	Kingston upon Hull	Yorkshire and the Humber	301,416
	3	Glasgow	Scotland	629,501	13	Bradford	Yorkshire and the Humber	293,717
	4	Liverpool	North West England	469,017	14	Cardiff	Wales	292,150
	5	Leeds	Yorkshire and the Humber	443,247	15	Belfast	Northern Ireland	276,459
	6	Sheffield	Yorkshire and the Humber	439,866	16	Stoke-on-Trent	West Midlands	259,252
	7	Edinburgh	Scotland	430,082	17	Wolverhampton	West Midlands	251,462
	8	Bristol	South West England	420,556	18	Nottingham	East Midlands	249,584
	9	Manchester	North West England	394,269	19	Plymouth	South West England	243,795
	10	Leicester	East Midlands	330,574	20	Southampton	South East England	234,224

Ethnic groups

Main article: Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom

Ethnic group	Population	% of total*
White British	50,366,497	85.67%
White (other)	3,096,169	5.27%
Indian	1,053,411	1.8%
Pakistani	977,285	1.6%
White Irish	691,232	1.2%
Mixed race	677,117	1.2%
Black Caribbean	565,876	1.0%
Black African	485,277	0.8%
Bangladeshi	283,063	0.5%
Other Asian (non-Chinese)	247,644	0.4%
Chinese	247,403	0.4%
Other	230,615	0.4%
Black (others)	97,585	0.2%
* Percentage of total UK population, according to the 2001 Census

Historically, indigenous British people were thought to be descended from the varied ethnic stocks that settled there before the 11th century; theCelts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Norse and the Normans. Recent genetic studies have shown that more than 50 percent of England's gene pool contains Germanic Y chromosomes,^[188] though recent genetic analysis indicates that "about 75 per cent of the traceable ancestors of the modern British population had arrived in the British isles by about 6,200 years ago, at the start of the British Neolithic or Stone Age", and that the British broadly share a common ancestry with the Basque people.^{[189][190][191]}

The UK has a history of small scale non-white immigration, with Liverpoolhaving the oldest Black population in the country, dating back to at least the 1730s,^[192] and the oldest Chinese community in Europe, dating to the arrival of Chinese seamen in the 19th century.^[193] In 1950 there were probably fewer than 20,000 non-white residents in Britain, almost all born overseas.^[194]

Since 1945, substantial immigration from Africa, the Caribbean and South Asia has been a legacy of ties forged by the British Empire. Migration from new EU member states in Central and Eastern Europe since 2004 has resulted in growth in these population groups, but, as of 2008, the trend is reversing and many of these migrants are returning home, leaving the size of these groups unknown.^[195] As of 2001, 92.1% of the population identified themselves as White, leaving 7.9%^[196] of the UK population identifying themselves as mixed race or ethnic minority.

Ethnic diversity varies significantly across the UK. 30.4% of London's population^[197] and 37.4% of Leicester's^[198] was estimated to be non-white as of June 2005, whereas less than 5% of the populations of North East England, Wales and the South West were from ethnic minorities according to the 2001 census.^[199] As of 2007, 22% of primary and 17.7% of secondary pupils at state schools in England were from ethnic minority families.^[200][201]

Languages

Main article: Languages of the United Kingdom

The English-speaking world. Countries in dark blue have a majority of native speakers; countries where it is an official but not primary language in light blue. English is also one of the official languages of the European Union^[202] and the United Nations^[203]

The UK does not de jure have an official language but the predominant spoken language is English, a West Germanic language descended from Old English which features a large number of borrowings from Old Norse, Norman French and Latin. Largely because of the British Empire, the English language has spread across the world, and become the international language of business as well as the most widely taught second language.^[204]

Scots, a language descended from early northern Middle English, is recognised at European level, as is its regional variant in the northern counties of Ireland, Ulster Scots.^[205] There are also fourCeltic languages in use in the UK: Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelicand Cornish. In the 2001 Census over a fifth (21%) of the population of Wales said they could speak Welsh,^[206] an increase from the 1991 Census (18%).^[207] In addition, it is estimated that about 200,000 Welsh speakers live in England.^[208]

The 2001 census in Northern Ireland showed that 167,487 (10.4%) people "had some knowledge of Irish" (see Irish language in Northern Ireland), almost exclusively in the Catholic/nationalist population. Over 92,000 people in Scotland (just under 2% of the population) had some Gaelic language ability, including 72% of those living in the Outer Hebrides.^[209] The number of schoolchildren being taught in Welsh, Gaelic and Irish is increasing.^[210] Welsh and Scottish Gaelic are also spoken by small groups around the globe with some Gaelic still spoken in Nova Scotia, Canada (especially Cape Breton Island), and Welsh in Patagonia, Argentina.^{[citation needed]}

Across the United Kingdom, it is generally compulsory for pupils to study a second language to some extent: up to the age of 14 in England,^[211] and up to age 16 in Scotland. French and German are the two most commonly taught second languages in England and Scotland. In Wales, all pupils up to age 16 are either taught in Welsh or taught Welsh as a second language.^[212]

Religion

Main article: Religion in the United Kingdom

Westminster Abbey is used for the coronation of British monarchs

The Treaty of Union that led to the formation of the United Kingdom ensured that there would be aProtestant succession as well as a link between church and state that still remains. Christianity is the largest religion, followed by Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism and then Judaism in terms of number of adherents. In the 2001 Census 71.6% of respondents said that Christianity was their religion,^[213] however a Tearfund survey showed only one in ten Britons actually attend church weekly.^[214] 9.1 million (15% of the UK population) claimed no religion, with a further 4.3 million (7% of the UK population) not stating a religious preference.^[215] Between 2004 and 2008, the Office for National Statistics reported that the number of Christians in Great Britain (rather than the UK as a whole) fell by more than 2 million.^[216]

The largest religious group in England is Christianity, with the Church of England (Anglican) as theEstablished Church:^[217] the church retains a representation in the UK Parliament and the British monarchis a member of the church (required under Article 2 of the Treaty of Union) as well as its Supreme Governor.^[218] The Church of England also retains the right to draft legislative measures (related to religious administration) through the General Synod that can then be passed into law by Parliament.^[219] The Roman Catholic Church in England and Wales is the second largest Christian church with around five million members, mainly in England.^[220] There are also growing Orthodox, Evangelical and Pentecostal churches, with Pentecostal churches in England now third after the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church in terms of church attendance.^[221]

The largest religious group in Scotland is also Christianity, though the presbyterian Church of Scotland (known informally as The Kirk), is recognised as the national church.^[222] It is not subject to state control and the British monarch is an ordinary member, required to swear an oath to "maintain and preserve the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Government" upon his or her accession.^[223] The Roman Catholic Church in Scotland is Scotland's second largest Christian church, representing a sixth of the population.^[224] There is also a Scottish Episcopal Church, which is part of the Anglican Communion.^[225]

The Church in Wales is 'disestablished' but remains in the Anglican Communion. Baptist Union of Wales, Methodism and the Presbyterian Church of Wales are present in Wales as well. The main religious groups in Northern Ireland are organised on an all-Ireland basis.^[226] Though Protestants and Anglicans are in the overall majority,^[227] the Roman Catholic Church of Ireland is the largest single church. The Presbyterian Church in Ireland is the second largest church followed by the Church of Ireland (Anglican) which was disestablished in the 19th century.

At the 2001 census, there were 1,536,015 Muslims in England and Wales,^[228] forming 3% of the population. Muslims in Scotland numbered 42,557 representing 0.84% of the population.^[229] According to a Labour Force Survey estimate, the total number of Muslims in Great Britainin 2008 was 2,422,000, around 4% of the total population.^[216] There were a further 1,943 Muslims in Northern Ireland.^[230]

Over 1 million people follow religions of Indian origin: 560,000 Hindus, 340,000 Sikhs with about 150,000 practising Buddhism.^[231] Leicesterhouses one of the world's few Jain temples outside India.^[232] Today British Jews number around 300,000 with the UK having the fifth largest Jewish community worldwide.^[233]

Migration

Main article: Immigration to the United Kingdom since 1922

See also: Foreign-born population of the United Kingdom

Estimated foreign-born population by country of birth, April 2007–March 2008

The United Kingdom has experienced successive waves of migration. The Great Famine brought a large influx of Irish immigrants.^[234] Over 120,000 Polish veterans settled in Britain after World War II, unable to return home.^[235] In the 20th century, significant immigration from the British Empire occurred, driven largely by post-Second World War labour shortages. Many of these migrants came from the West Indies and from the Indian subcontinent.^[236]

The proportion of foreign-born people in the UK remains slightly below that of some other European countries,^[237] although immigration is now contributing to a rising population,^[238] accounting for about half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001. Analysis of Office for National Statistics data shows that 2.3 million net migrants moved to the UK in the period 1991 to 2006.^[239][240] In 2008 it was predicted that migration would add 7 million to the UK population by 2031,^[241] though these figures are disputed.^[242] The latest provisional official figures show that, in 2009, 567,000 people arrived to live in the UK whilst 371,000 left, meaning that net inward migration was 196,000.^[243][244]

A record 203,790 foreign nationals became British citizens in 2009.^[245] Also in 2009, 194,780 people were granted permanent settlement rights, of whom people from the Indian subcontinent accounted for 34 per cent. Of the rest, 25 per cent were from Africa and 21 per cent from elsewhere in Asia.^[243][246] 24.7 per cent of babies born in England and Wales in 2009 were born to mothers who were born outside the UK, according to official statistics released in 2010.^[247]

Estimated number of British citizens living overseas by country, 2006

At least 5.5 million British-born people are living abroad,^{[248][249][250]} with Australia,Spain, the United States, and Canada being the top four destinations.^[248][251]Emigration was an important feature of British society in the 19th century. Between 1815 and 1930 around 11.4 million people emigrated from Britain and 7.3 million from Ireland. By the end of the 20th century, it has been estimated, some 300 million people of British and Irish descent were permanently settled around the globe.^[252]

Citizens of the European Union have the right to live and work in any member state, including the UK.^[253] Transitional arrangements apply to Romanians and Bulgarians whose countries joined the EU in January 2007.^[254] Research conducted by theMigration Policy Institute for the Equality and Human Rights Commission suggests that, between May 2004 and September 2009, 1.5 million workers migrated from the new EU member states to the UK, with two-thirds being Polish, but that many have returned home, with the result that the number of nationals of the new member states in the UK increased by some 700,000 over the same period.^[255][256] The late-2000s recession in the UK reduced the economic incentive for Poles to migrate to the UK,^[257] with the migration becoming temporary and circular.^[258] In 2009, for the first time since the enlargement, more nationals of the eight Central and Eastern European states that joined the EU in 2004 left the UK than arrived.^[259]

The UK government is currently introducing a points-based immigration system for immigration from outside the European Economic Areathat will replace existing schemes, including the Scottish Government's Fresh Talent Initiative.^[260] In June 2010, the Conservative-Liberal Democrat Coalition government introduced a temporary cap on immigration of those entering the UK from outside the EU, with the limit set at 24,100, in order to stop an expected rush of applications before a permanent cap is imposed in April 2011.^[261] The cap has caused tension within the coalition, with business secretary Vince Cable arguing that it is harming British businesses.^[262]

Education

Main articles: Education in England, Education in Northern Ireland, Education in Scotland, and Education in Wales

King's College, part of the University of Cambridge

Education in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter, with each country having a separate education system.

Education in England is the responsibility of the Secretary of State for Education, though the day-to-day administration and funding of state schools is the responsibility of Local Authorities(previously named Local Education Authorities).^[263] Universal free state education was introduced piecemeal between 1870 and 1944, with education becoming compulsory for all 5 to 14 year olds in 1921.^[264][265] Education is now mandatory from ages five to sixteen (15 if born in late July or August). The majority of children are educated in state-sector schools, only a small proportion of which select on the grounds of academic ability. State schools which are allowed to select pupils according to intelligence and academic ability can achieve comparable results to the most selective private schools: out of the top ten performing schools in terms of GCSE results in 2006 two were state-run grammar schools. Despite a fall in actual numbers, the proportion of children in England attending private schools has risen to over 7%.^[266] However over half of students at the leading universities of Cambridge and Oxfordhad attended state schools.^[267] The universities of England include some of the top universities in the world; University of Cambridge,University of Oxford, Imperial College London and University College London are ranked in the global top 10 in the 2008 THE–QS World University Rankings.^[268] Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) rated pupils in England 7th in the world for maths, and 6th for science. The results put England's pupils ahead of other European countries, including Germany and Scandinavian countries.^[269]

Queen's University, Belfast, built in 1849 and one of the oldest higher education institutions in the United Kingdom^[270]

Education in Scotland is the responsibility of the Cabinet Secretary for Education and Lifelong Learning, with day-to-day administration and funding of state schools the responsibility of Local Authorities. Two non-departmental public bodies have key roles in Scottish education: the Scottish Qualifications Authority is responsible for the development, accreditation, assessment and certification of qualifications other than degrees which are delivered at secondary schools, post-secondary colleges of further education and other centres;^[271] and Learning and Teaching Scotland provides advice, resources and staff development to the education community to promote curriculum development and create a culture of innovation, ambition and excellence.^[272] Scotland first legislated for compulsory education in 1496.^[273] The proportion of children in Scotland attending private schools is just over 4%, although it has been rising slowly in recent years.^[274]Scottish students who attend Scottish universities pay neither tuition fees nor graduate endowment charges, as fees were abolished in 2001 and the graduate endowment scheme was abolished in 2008.^[275]

Education in Northern Ireland is the responsibility of the Minister of Education and the Minister for Employment and Learning, although responsibility at a local level is administered by five education and library boards, covering different geographical areas. The 'Council for the Curriculum, Examinations & Assessment (CCEA) is the body responsible for advising the government on what should be taught in Northern Ireland's schools, monitoring standards and awarding qualifications.^[276] The Welsh Assembly Government has responsibility for education in Wales. A significant number of Welsh students are taught either wholly or largely in the Welsh language; lessons in Welsh are compulsory for all until the age of 16.^[277] There are plans to increase the provision of Welsh-medium schools as part of the policy of having a fully bilingual Wales.

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