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Thursday, February 17, 2011

Spain

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Energy

Main article: Renewable energy in Spain
Spanish territory lacks petroleum so alternative sources of energy is a strategic point. It has reached important records. In 2010 Spain overtook United States as the solar power world leader, with a massive power station plant called La Florida, near Alvarado, Badajoz.[95][96] In 2009, more than 50% of the produced energy in Spain was generated by wind turbines, and the highest total production record was reached with 11.546 eolic Megawatts.[97]

Transport

Main article: Transport in Spain
The Spanish road system is mainly centralized, with 6 highways connecting Madrid to the Basque Country, Catalonia, Valencia, West Andalusia, Extremadura and Galicia. Additionally, there are highways along the Atlantic (Ferrol to Vigo), Cantabrian (Oviedo to San Sebastián) and Mediterranean (Girona to Cádiz) coasts.
Spain currently has a total of 1272 km of high speed train linking Málaga, Seville, Madrid,Barcelona and Valladolid. Should the aims of the ambitious AVE program (Spanish high speed trains) be met, by 2020 Spain will have 7000 km (4300 mi) of high-speed trains linking almost all provincial cities to Madrid in less than 3 hours and Barcelona within 4 hours.
The busiest airport in Spain is the airport of Madrid (Barajas), with 50.8 million passengers in 2008, being the world's 11th busiest airport. The airport of Barcelona (El Prat) is also important, with 30 million passengers in 2008. Other airports are located in Gran Canaria, Málaga, Valencia,Seville, Mallorca, Alicante and Bilbao.
Spain aims to put 1 million electric cars on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and boost energy efficiency.[98]The Minister of Industry Miguel Sebastian said that "the electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution."[99]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Spain
See also: List of Spanish autonomous communities by population
Geographical distribution of the Spanish population in 2008
In 2008 the population of Spain officially reached 46 million people, as recorded by the Padrón municipal.[100] Spain's population density, at 91/km² (235/sq mi), is lower than that of most Western European countries and its distribution across the country is very unequal. With the exception of the region surrounding the capital, Madrid, the most populated areas lie around the coast. The population of Spain doubled during the 20th century, principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s.
Native Spaniards make up 88% of the total population of Spain. After thebirth rate plunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward, based initially on the return of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently, fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up 12% of the population. The immigrants originate mainly in Latin America(39%), North Africa (16%) Eastern Europe (15%), and Sub-Saharan Africa (4%).[101] In 2005, Spain instituted a three-month amnesty program through which certain hitherto undocumented aliens were granted legal residency.
In 2008, Spain granted citizenship to 84,170 persons, mostly to people from Ecuador, Colombia and Morocco.[102] A sizeable portion of foreign residents in Spain also comes from other Western and Central European countries. These are mostly British, French, German, Dutch, and Norwegian. They reside primarily on the Mediterranean costas and Balearic islands, where many are choosing to live their retirement ortelework.
Substantial populations descended from Spanish colonists and immigrants exist in other parts of the world, most notably in Latin America. Beginning in the late 15th century, large numbers of Iberian colonists settled in what became Latin America and at present most white Latin Americans (who make up about one-third of Latin America's population) are of Spanish or Portuguese origin. In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Spaniards emigrated, mostly to Peru and Mexico.[103] They were joined by 450,000 in the next century.[104] Between 1846 and 1932 nearly 5 million Spaniards went to the Americas, especially to Argentina and Brazil.[105] From 1960 to 1975, approximately two million Spaniards migrated to other Western European countries. During the same time period, about 300,000 people left Spain for Latin America.[106]

Urbanization

Map of the main metropolitan areas
The city of Las Palmas de G.C.
The city of Girona
The city of Toledo
Pos.CityRegionProv.population
1MadridMadridMadrid6,103,000
2BarcelonaCataloniaBarcelona4,851,000
3ValenciaValencian CommunityValencia1,499,000
4SevilleAndalusiaSeville1,262,000
5BilbaoBasque CountryBiscay1,000,000
6MálagaAndalusiaMálaga900,000
7Oviedo–GijónAsturiasAsturias844,000
8Alicante–ElcheValencian CommunityAlicante793,000
9Las Palmas de G.C.CanariasLas Palmas750,000
10ZaragozaAragonZaragoza730,000
Pos.CityRegionProv.population
1MadridMadridMadrid3,213,271
2BarcelonaCataloniaBarcelona1,615,908
3ValenciaValencian CommunityValencia810,064
4SevilleAndalusiaSeville703.206
5ZaragozaAragonZaragoza699.240
6MálagaAndalusiaMálaga566,447
7MurciaMurciaMurcia430,571
8Palma de MallorcaBalearic IslandsBalearic Islands401,570
9Las Palmas de G.C.Canary IslandsLas Palmas381,723
10BilbaoBasque CountryBiscay353,340

Peoples

Main articles: Spanish people and Nationalisms and regionalisms of Spain
The Spanish Constitution of 1978, in its second article, recognises historic entities ("nationalities", a carefully chosen word in order to avoid the more politically charged "nations") and regions, within the context of the Spanish nation. For some people, Spain's identity consists more of an overlap of different regional identities than of a sole Spanish identity. Indeed, some of the regional identities may even conflict with the Spanish one.[clarification needed] Distinct traditional regional identities within Spain include the Basques, Catalans, Galicians andCastilians, among others.[108]
It is this last feature of "shared identity" between the more local level or Autonomous Community and the Spanish level which makes the identity question in Spain complex and far from univocal.

Minority groups

Spain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies (especially Equatorial Guinea) and immigrants from several Sub-Saharan and Caribbean countries have been recently settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Chinese, Indian, Filipino, Middle Eastern and South Asian origins; the population of Latin Americans (who can also be of Spaniard descent) is sizeable as well and a fast growing segment. Other growing groups are Britons, 760,000 in 2006, Germans and other immigrants from the rest of Europe.[109]
The arrival of the Gitanos, a Romani people, began in the 16th century; estimates of the Spanish Gitano population fluctuate around 700,000.[110] The Mercheros (also Quinquis) are a minority group, formerly nomadic, that share a lot of the way of life of Gitanos. Their origin is unclear.

Immigration

Main article: Immigration to Spain
According to the Spanish government there were 4.5 million foreign residents in Spain in 2007; independent estimates put the figure at 4.8 million people, or 11% of the total population.[111] According to residence permit data for 2005, about 500,000 were Moroccan, another 500,000 were Ecuadorian, more than 200,000 were Romanian, and 260,000 were Colombian. Other sizeable foreign communities are British(8%), French (8%), Argentine (6%), German (6%) and Bolivian (3%). Spain has more than 200,000 migrants from West and Central Africa.[112] Since 2000, Spain has experienced high population growth as a result of immigration flows, despite a birth rate that is only half the replacement level. This sudden and ongoing inflow of immigrants, particularly those arriving clandestinely by sea, has caused noticeable social tension.[113]
Within the EU, Spain has the second highest immigration rate in percentage terms after Cyprus, but by a great margin, the highest in absolute numbers.[114] There are a number of reasons for the high level of immigration, including Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce.
Another statistically significant factor is the large number of residents of EU origin typically retiring to Spain's Mediterranean coast. In fact, Spain was Europe's largest absorber of migrants from 2002 to 2007, with its immigrant population more than doubling as 2.5 million people arrived.[115] According to the Financial Times, Spain is the most favoured destination for West Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.[116]
The number of immigrants in Spain has grown up from 500,000 people in 1996 to 5.2 million in 2008 out of a total population of 46 million.[117][118] In 2005 alone, a regularisation programme increased the legal immigrant population by 700,000 people.[119]Unemployment among immigrants has risen 67% in 2007. Spain's new Plan of Voluntary Return encourages immigrants to leave Spain for three years and offers up to €25,000, but so far, only 186 Ecuadorans have signed up to return.[120][121] In the program's first two months last year, just 1,400 immigrants took up the offer.[122]

Languages

Main article: Languages of Spain
The languages of Spain (simplified)
  Spanish official and spoken all over the country
  Catalan/Valencian, co-official
  Basque, co-official
  Galician, co-official
  Aranese, co-official (dialect ofOccitan)
  Asturian, recognised
  Aragonese, recognised
  Leonese, unofficial
  Extremaduran, unofficial
  Fala, unofficial
Spanish (español or castellano, Castilian) is spoken all over the country and so is the only language with official status nationwide. But a number of regional languages have been declared co-official, along with Spanish, in the constituent communities where they are spoken:
There are also some other surviving Romance minority languages such as the Astur-Leonese group, which includes two languages in Spain: Asturian (officially called "Bable") which has protected status in Asturias, and Leonese, which is protected in Castile and León. Aragonese is vaguely recognized in Aragon.[124] Unlike Basque, Catalan/Valencian and Galician, these languages do not have any official status. This might be due to their very small number of speakers, a less significant written tradition in comparison to Catalan or Galician, and lower self-awareness of their speakers which traditionally meant lack of strong popular demand for their recognition in the regions in which they are spoken.[125]
In the North African Spanish city of Melilla, Riff Berber is spoken by a significant part of the population. In the tourist areas of the Mediterranean coast and the islands, English andGerman are widely spoken by tourists, foreign residents, and tourism workers.

Education

Main article: Education in Spain
State education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of 6 to 16. The current education system was established by an educational law of 1990, Ley Orgánica de Ordenación General del Sistema Educativo – Law on the General Organization of the Educational System.[126]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Spain
Further information: History of the Jews in Spain, Bahá'í Faith in Spain, and Hinduism in Spain
Religions in Spain
Catholicism
  
76%
Non-religious
  
13%
Atheism
  
7.3%
No answer
  
1.6%
Others
  
2.1%
Numbers from the following source:[127]
Roman Catholicism has long been the main religion of Spain,and although it no longer has official status by law,in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either religion or ethics and Catholic is the only religion officially taught although in some schools there are large[citation needed] numbers of Muslim students together. According to a July 2009 study by the Spanish Center of Sociological Research about 73% of Spaniards self-identify as Catholics, 2.1% other faith, and about 22% identify with no religion among which 7.3% are atheists. Most Spaniards do not participate regularly in religious services. This same study shows that of the Spaniards who identify themselves as religious, 58% hardly ever or never go to church, 17% go to church some times a year, 9% some time per month and 15% every Sunday or multiple times per week.[127]
But according to a December 2006 study, 48% of the population declared a belief in a supreme being, while 41% described themselves as atheist or agnostic.[128] Altogether, about 22% of the entire Spanish population attends religious services at least once per month.[129] Though Spanish society has become considerably more secular in recent decades, the influx of Latin American immigrants, who tend to be strong Catholic practitioners, has helped the Catholic Church to recover.
Protestant churches have about 1,200,000 members.[130] There are about 105,000 Jehovah's Witnesses.The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations in all regions of the country and has a temple in the Moratalaz District of Madrid.[131]
The recent waves of immigration have also led to an increasing number of Muslims, who number approximately one million in Spain. Presently, Islam is the second largest religion in Spain, accounting for approximately 2.3% of the total population.[132] After their expulsion in 1492, Muslims did not live in Spain for centuries. Late 19th-century colonial expansion in northwestern Africa gave a number of residents inSpanish Morocco and Western Sahara full citizenship. Their ranks have since been bolstered by recent immigration, especially from Morocco and Algeria.[133]
Judaism was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population. Most are arrivals in the past century, while some are descendants of earlier Spanish Jews. Approximately 80,000 Jews are thought to have lived in Spain on the eve of the Spanish Inquisition.[134] Currently, Jews of Sephardic origin are given preferential status in the acquisition of Spanish citizenship.[citation needed]

Culture

The Hemispheric at the Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciències, Valencia
Main articles: Culture of Spain and UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Spain
Spain is known for its culturally diverse heritage, having been influenced by many nations and peoples throughout its history. Spanish culture has its origins in the Iberian, Celtiberian, Latin,Visigothic, Roman Catholic, and Islamic cultures.
The definition of a national Spanish culture has been characterized by tension between the centralized state, dominated in recent centuries by Castile, and numerous regions and minority peoples. In addition, the history of the nation and its Mediterranean and Atlantic environment have played strong roles in shaping its culture. After Italy, Spain has the second highest number ofUNESCO World Heritage Sites in the world, with a total of 40.[135]

Literature

Main article: Spanish literature
The term Spanish literature refers to literature written in the Spanish language, including literature composed in Spanish by writers not necessarily from Spain. For literature from Spain in languages other than the Spanish, see Catalan literature, Basque literature and Galician literature. Equally, for Spanish-American literature specifically, see Latin American literature. Due to historic, geographic and generational diversity, Spanish literature has known a great number of influences and it is very diverse. Some major literary movements can be identified within it.
Miguel de Cervantes is probably Spain's most famous author and his Don Quixote is considered the most emblematic work in the canon of Spanish literature and a founding classic of Western literature.[136]

Institutions

Main articles: Royal Spanish Academy and Institut d'Estudis Catalans
The Royal Spanish Academy (Real Academia Española or RAE, in Spanish) is the institution responsible for regulating the Spanish language. It is based in Madrid, but is affiliated with national language academies in 21Spanish-speaking nations through the Association of Spanish Language Academies. Its emblem is a fiery crucible, and its motto is Limpia, fija y da esplendor ("It cleans, sets, and gives splendor").[137]
The Institute for Catalan Studies (Institut d'Estudis Catalans or IEC, in Catalan) is an academic institution which seeks to undertake research and study into "all elements of Catalan culture". The IEC is known principally for its work in standardizing the Catalan language. The IEC is based in Barcelona, the capital of Catalonia. Officially the IEC provides standards for Catalonia proper, Northern Catalonia (located in France), the Balearic Islands, and the Principality of Andorra (the only country where Catalan is the sole official language). The Valencian Communityhas its own language academy, the Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua. In an area known as the Franja de Ponent, the eastern edge ofAragon adjacent to Catalonia where Catalan is spoken, the rules are used de facto although Catalan is not an official language.

Art

Main article: Spanish art
Artists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European artistic movements. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Moorish heritage in Spain, especially in Andalusia, is still evident today in cities like Córdoba, Seville, and Granada. European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Baroque and Neoclassical periods.

Cinema

Main article: Cinema of Spain
Spanish cinema has achieved major international success including Oscars for recent films such as Pan's Labyrinth and Volver.[138] In the long history of Spanish cinema, the great filmmaker Luis Buñuel was the first to achieve world recognition, followed by Pedro Almodóvar in the 1980s. Spanish cinema has also seen international success over the years with films by directors like Segundo de Chomón, Florián Rey,Luis García Berlanga, Carlos Saura, Julio Medem and Alejandro Amenábar.

Architecture

Main article: Spanish architecture
The Plaza de Cibeles in Madrid
Spanish architecture refers to architecture carried out during any era in what is now modern-day Spain, and by Spanish architects worldwide. The term includes buildings within the current geographical limits of Spain before this name was given to those territories, whether they were called Hispania, Al-Andalus, or were formed of several Christian kingdoms.
Nativity facade of the Sagrada Família Temple in Barcelona
Due to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. An important provincial city founded by the Romans and with an extensiveRoman era infrastructure, Córdoba became the cultural capital, including fine Arabic style architecture, during the time of the Islamic Umayyad dynasty.[139] Later Arab style architecture continued to be developed under successive Islamic dynasties, ending with the Nasrid, which built its famed palace complex inGranada.
Simultaneously, the Christian kingdoms gradually emerged and developed their own styles; developing apre-Romanesque style when for a while isolated from contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated the Romanesque and Gothic streams. There was then an extraordinary flowering of the gothic style that resulted in numerous instances being built throughout the entire territory. The Mudéjar style, from the 12th to 17th centuries, was developed by introducing Arab style motifs, patterns and elements into European architecture.
Auditorio de Tenerife in Santa Cruz de Tenerife
The arrival of Modernism in the academic arena produced much of the architecture of the 20th century. An influential style centered in Barcelona, known as modernisme, produced a number of important architects, of which Gaudí is one. The International style was led by groups like GATEPAC. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in contemporary architecture andSpanish architects like Rafael Moneo, Santiago Calatrava, Ricardo Bofill as well as many others have gained worldwide renown.

Music

Main article: Music of Spain
Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with flamenco, a West Andalusian musical genre, which, contrary to popular belief, is not widespread outside that region. Various regional styles of folk music abound in Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Castile, the Basque Country, Galicia and Asturias. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular.
Spanish bagpipers or gaiteros, inCelanova (Ourense)
In the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted composers such as Isaac Albéniz, Manuel de Falla and Enrique Granados and singers and performers such as Plácido Domingo, José Carreras, Montserrat Caballé, Alicia de Larrocha, Alfredo Kraus, Pablo Casals,Ricardo Viñes, José Iturbi, Pablo de Sarasate, Jordi Savall and Teresa Berganza. In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including the Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona, Orquesta Nacional de España and the Orquesta Sinfónica de Madrid. Major opera houses include the Teatro Real,the Gran Teatre del Liceu, Teatro Arriaga and the El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía.
Thousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivals Sonar which often features the top up and coming pop and techno acts, andBenicasim which tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts .[140] Both festivals mark Spain as an international music presence and reflect the tastes of young people in the country.
The musical instrument originating in Spain most popular is undoubtedly the guitar. Also typical of the northern bands of bagpipers (gaiteros), mainly in Galicia and the Principality of Asturias.

Cuisine

Main article: Spanish cuisine
Paella, a dish originating in the Valencian Community, Spain[141]
Spanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deep Mediterranean roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified:
  • Mediterranean Spain – all such coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia: heavy use of seafood, such as pescaíto frito; several cold soups like gazpacho; and many rice-based dishes like paella from Valencia[141] and arroz negro from Catalonia.[142]
  • Inner Spain – Castile: hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based Castilian soup, along with substantious stews such as cocido madrileño. Food is traditionally conserved by salting, like Spanish ham, or immersed in olive oil, like Manchego cheese.
  • Atlantic Spain – the whole Northern coast, from Galicia to Navarre: vegetable and fish-based stews like pote gallego and marmitako. Also, the lightly cured lacón ham.

Sport

Main article: Sport in Spain
The Camp Nou, in Barcelona: the largestfootball stadium in Europe
Sport in Spain has been dominated by football since the early 20th century. Real Madrid C.F. andF.C. Barcelona are two of the most successful football clubs in the world. The country's national football team won the UEFA European Football Championship in 1964 and 2008 and the FIFA World Cup in 2010.
Basketball, tennis, cycling, handball, motorcycling and, lately, Formula One are also important due to the presence of Spanish champions in all these disciplines. Today, Spain is a major world sports power, especially since the 1992 Summer Olympics that were hosted in Barcelona and promoted a great variety of sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for water sports, golf and skiing.
Rafael Nadal is the leading Spanish tennis player and has won several Grand Slam titles including the Wimbledon 2010 men's singles. In north Spain is the game of pelota is very popular. Alberto Contador is the leading Spanish cyclist and has won several Grand Tour titles including the 3 Tour de France titles.

Public holidays

Main article: Public holidays in Spain
Public holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious (Roman Catholic), national and regional observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of 14 public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally.[143] Spain's National Day (Fiesta Nacional de España) is 12 October, the anniversary of the Discovery of America and commemorate Our Lady of the Pillar feast, patroness of Aragón and throughout Spain.
The city of San Sebastián in Guipúzcoa

See also

Spain portal
European Union portal
Main article: Outline of Spain

References

Notes
  1. ^ Also serves as the Royal anthem
  2. ^ In some autonomous communities, Catalan, Valencian,Galician, Basque and Aranese (Occitan) are co-official languages.Aragonese, Asturian and Leonese have some degree of official recognition
  3. ^ Prior to 1999 (by law, 2002) : Spanish Peseta.
  4. ^ Except in the Canary Islands, which are in the WET time zone (UTC, UTC+1 in summer).
  5. ^ The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states. Also, the .cat domain is used in Catalan-speaking territories.
  6. ^ In Spain, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous (regional) languages under theEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:
  7. ^ The Spanish constitution does not establish any official denomination of the country, even though España (Spain), Estado español (Spanish State) and Nación española (Spanish Nation) are used interchangeably. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in an Ordinance published in 1984, declared that "denominations "Spain" and "Kingdom of Spain" are equally valid to designate the Spain in international treaties..."
  8. ^[page needed]In recent years, some researchers have argued that Iberia might have been the original source of Celtic culture. See, Cunliffe, Karl, Guerra, McEvoy, Bradley; Oppenheimer, Rrvik, Isaac, Parsons, Koch, Freeman Celtic from the West: Alternative Perspectives from Archaeology, Genetics, Language and Literature2010|publisher Oxbow Books and Celtic Studies Publications;Rethinking the Bronze Age and the Arrival of Indo-European in Atlantic Europe, University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies and Institute of Archaeology, University of Oxford, 24 May 2010
  9. ^ The latifundia (sing., latifundium), large estates controlled by the aristocracy, were superimposed on the existing Iberian landholding system.
  10. ^ The poets Martial, Quintilian and Lucan were also born in Hispania.
  11. ^ The Berbers soon gave up attempting to settle the harsh lands in the north of the Meseta Central handed to them by the Arab rulers.
  12. ^ For the related expulsions that followed see Morisco.
References
  1. ^ "Spain". www.diariocritico.com. 22 May 2010.
  2. ^ "Official Population Figures of Spain. Population on the 1 April 2010". Instituto Nacional de Estadística de España. Retrieved 5 July 2010.
  3. ^ a b c d "Spain". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
  4. ^ "CIA World Factbook". Retrieved 13 August 2008.
  5. ^ "Human Development Report 2010". United Nations. 2010. Retrieved 5 November 2010.
  6. ^ The term "Kingdom of Spain" (Reino de España) is widely used by the Spanish Government for national and international affairs of all kind, for example: Acuerdo entre el Reino de de España y Nueva Zelanda, Acuerdo entre el reino de España y el reino de Marruecos; by the press (El País, most sold spanish newspaper); and in many official documents (i.e. all drivinglicenses and permissions). Additionally he Government always uses the name "Kingdom of Spain" when signing documents, treaties and pacts within the European Union: Tratado de la Unión Europea
  7. ^ a b Anthon, Charles (1850). A system of ancient and mediæval geography for the use of schools and colleges. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 14.
  8. ^ Burke, Ulick Ralph (2nd edition, 2008). A History of Spain from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the Catholic, Volume 1. London: Longmans, Green & Co. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-4437-4054-8.
  9. ^ # ↑ Linch, John (director), Fernández Castro, María Cruz (del segundo tomo), Historia de España, El País, volumen II, La península Ibérica en época prerromana, pg. 40. Dossier. La etimología de España; ¿tierra de conejos?, ISBN 978-84-9815-764-2
  10. ^ a b [1][dead link]
  11. ^ "'First west Europe tooth' found". BBC. 30 June 2007. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
  12. ^ Typical Aurignacian items were found in Cantabria (Morín, El Pendo, Castillo), the Basque Country (Santimamiñe) and Catalonia. The radiocarbon datations give the following dates: 32,425 and 29,515 BP.
  13. ^ a b c Rinehart, Robert; Seeley, Jo Ann Browning (1998). "A Country Study: Spain – Hispania". Library of Congress Country Series. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
  14. ^ a b Payne, Stanley G. (1973). "A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 1 Ancient Hispania". The Library of Iberian Resources Online. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
  15. ^ Dhimma provides rights of residence in return for taxes. H. Patrick Glenn, Legal Traditions of the World. Oxford University Press, 2007, pg. 218–219.
  16. ^ Dhimmi have fewer legal and social rights than Muslims, but more rights than other non-Muslims.Lewis, Bernard, The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press (1984). ISBN 978-0-691-00807-3 p. 62
  17. ^ Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. Chapter 5: Ethnic Relations, Thomas F. Glick
  18. ^ a b c d Payne, Stanley G. (1973). "A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 2 Al-Andalus". The Library of Iberian Resources Online. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
  19. ^ Rinehart, Robert; Seeley, Jo Ann Browning (1998). "A Country Study: Spain – Castile and Aragon". Library of Congress Country Series. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
  20. ^ "Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier". Retrieved 13 August 2008.See also: Payne, Stanley G. (1973). "A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 4 Castile-León in the Era of the Great Reconquest". The Library of Iberian Resources Online. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
  21. ^ Payne, Stanley G. (1973). "A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 5 The Rise of Aragón-Catalonia". The Library of Iberian Resources Online. Retrieved 9 August 2008.
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Literature
  • Gates, David (2001). The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War. Da Capo Press. pp. 20. ISBN 978-0-306-81083-1.

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