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Paul the Apostle, also called the Apostle Paul, Paul of Tarsus, and Saint Paul, (Ancient Greek: Σαούλ (Saul), Σαῦλος (Saulos), and Παῦλος (Paulos); Latin: Paulus or Paullus; Hebrew: שאול התרסי Šaʾul HaTarsi (Saul of Tarsus)[3] (c. 5 - c. 67 ),[2] was of the tribe of Benjamin.[4][5] He was a zealous Jew, who persecuted the early followers of Jesus Christ. However after his "Resurrection experience", he became a Christian and referred to himself as the "Apostle to the Gentiles".[6][7]
According to the Acts of the Apostles, his conversion to faith in Jesus took place in a profound life-changing experience on the road to Damascus. Together with Simon Peter and James the Just, he is considered among the most notable of early Christian leaders.[8] He was also a Roman citizen—a fact that afforded him a privileged legal status with respect to laws, property, and governance.[5][9]
Thirteen epistles, or letters, in the New Testament are attributed to Paul. Within these epistles, other letters are referenced that do not appear in the Bible, such as a Laodicean epistle.[10] His authorship of six of the thirteen is questioned by some scholars,[11] three of which are more widely debated.[12] Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more significant than any other New Testament author.[11] Augustine of Hippo developed Paul's idea that salvation is based on faith and not "Works of the Law".[11] Martin Luther's interpretation of Paul's writings heavily influenced Luther's doctrine of sola fide.
Paul's conversion dramatically changed the course of his life. Through his missionary activity and writings he eventually transformed religious belief and philosophy throughout the Mediterranean basin. His leadership, influence and legacy led to the formation of communities dominated by Gentile groups that worshipped the God of Israel, adhered to the Judaic "moral code" but relaxed or abandoned the "ritual" and dietary obligations of the Mosaic law all on the basis of the life and works of Jesus Christ and the New Covenant established through Jesus' death and resurection. These communities eventually formed Christianity, in the split of early Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism following the destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem.
Sources of information
Scholars such as Hans Conzelmann and 20th century theologian John Knox (not the 16th century John Knox) dispute the historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles.[14][15] Paul's own account of his background is found particularly in Galatians. According to some scholars, the account in Acts of Paul visiting Jerusalem[Acts 11:27-30] contradicts the account in Paul's letters.[13] (Please see the full discussion in the Acts of the Apostles article). Some scholars consider Paul's accounts to be more reliable than those found in Acts.[16]
Names
Paul shares his original Hebrew name Saul (Hebrew: שָׁאוּל, Modern Sha'ul Tiberian Šāʼûl ; "asked for, prayed for"), with the Biblical King Saul, a fellow Benjaminite and the first king of Israel, who was replaced by King David, of the tribe of Judah. Usage of "Paul" is first recorded in Acts when he begins his first missionary journey into a new territory. In Acts 13:6-13, we are told of Paul speaking to Sergius Paulus, a Roman official. Paulus was a Roman surname, and apparently Paul adopted it as his first name.Personality
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Based on his writing Paul was of an unyielding disposition. He would not compromise easily except where his compromise would be seen as promoting the causes he advocated. He is not easily intimidated, rank and stature whether physical or social and religious do not in any way shake his core convictions or lead him to back down. Quite the opposite he is of that rare type who is rather drawn to dispute with leaders that he may perceive as not living up to their title. From his letters Paul seems propelled to challenge them when he sees a flaw in their purpose and agenda.
Paul seems to be quite aware that he is undertaking to reinterpret or reorient the prevailing understanding of human spiritual life. The object of his revelation is the person of Jesus Christ. The life of Jesus captivates and enlivens Paul such that he is indefatigably drawn to imitate and order his life on the traits that made Jesus's ministry and death so astounding. Paul sees the harsh treatment and rejection of his preaching of Jesus as actual validation of it. If he finds himself accursed by the same forces and powers that led to Jesus's death his esteem is raised and his claims of apostolic authority become irrefutable. The spiritual economy is always based on the central figure of Jesus and ones proximity to him. Paul would seem to say in his letters that he is not worthy of preaching the message of salvation through faith in Jesus if preaching it led to acceptance by those that rejected Jesus. He would argue and ask: how can one find favor with those that crucified Jesus and yet be a disciple of Him. He is therefore headed for a dangerous conflict with the same Temple authorities that Jesus faced and that Paul himself once served. A similar political intrigue will await him as the diplomats of a wealthy Temple authority eventually bargain with Roman rulers over his fate. They will simultaneously seek to absorb the Jesus sect back into the Temple approved religious order while marginalizing the overarching claims of Paul regarding the all encompassing nature of Jesus's life.
Paul presents a message of faith in Jesus that despite opposition from high ranking Jews and Gentiles alike is fairly well understood by all and accepted by some. Unlike many other religious innovators he does not see himself in any way as indispensable to this understanding. Paul certainly is not particularly charmed by material gain nor is he intimidated in any way by those of great wealth and rank. Though he is part of a large body of Jewish missionary apostles all proclaiming Jesus as an essential leading person, exalted by God in life, death and resurrection Paul sees his own particular spiritual insights as indispensable and vital to the message reaching the Gentile world. Such Jewish missionaries were likely an integral part of religious innovation throughout the Hellenist world for at least a century before the apostolic generation. While Paul is exceedingly proud of his message of Jesus to the Gentiles he seems also motivated to undermine and challenge the Jerusalem religious order by explicitly presenting Jesus and his perfect life as the fulfillment of the Mosaic law. He therefore is not content simply with Gentile conversions but pushes hard and is determned to advance this broader understanding of the work of Jesus in life and in death. Some of the features of this understanding cause acute stress within other factions of the larger movement of Jesus followers within Judaism and this adds to the building conflict with the authorities at Jerusalem.
Prior to conversion
Paul, whose Hebrew name was Saul,[19] was "of the people of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of Hebrews; in regard to the law, a Pharisee.”[Phil. 3:5] Acts identifies Paul as from the Mediterranean city of Tarsus (in present-day south-central Turkey), well-known for its intellectual environment. Acts also quotes Paul as saying he was "a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee".[Acts 23:6]Paul confesses to having “violently persecuted” the “church of God” prior to his conversion.[20] He was well respected by everyone and advancing in stature within Judaism's Jerusalem Temple leadership before he came to the decision that Jesus, by his resurrection from the dead, was actually The Lord and The Messiah.[Rom. 1:3-4]
Conversion and mission
Main article: Conversion of Paul
Post-conversion testimony
In the opening verses of Romans 1, Paul provides a litany of his own apostolic claim and his post-conversion convictions about the risen Christ:- Paul describes himself as
- a servant of Christ Jesus
- called to be an apostle
- set apart for the gospel of God
- Paul describes Jesus as
- having been promised by God "beforehand" through his prophets in the holy Scriptures
- being the Son of God
- having biological lineage from David ("according to the flesh")[24]
- having been declared to be the Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead
- being Jesus Christ our Lord
- the One through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience of faith for the sake of his name among all the nations, "including you who are called to belong to Jesus Christ."
Paul asserted that he received the Gospel not from any person, but by a personal revelation of Jesus Christ.[Gal 1:11–16] Paul claimed independence from the "mother church" in Jerusalem[25] (possibly in the Cenacle), but was just as quick to claim agreement with it on the nature and content of the gospel.[Gal 1:22-24]
Early ministry
After his conversion, Paul went to Damascus, where Acts states he was healed of his blindness and baptized by Ananias of Damascus.[26] Paul says that it was in Damascus that he barely escaped death [2Cor. 11:32]. Paul also says that he then went first to Arabia, and then came back to Damascus.[Gal. 1:17] He describes in Galatians how three years after his conversion he went to Jerusalem. There he met James and stayed with Simon Peter for 15 days.[Gal. 1:13–24]
Paul's narrative in Galatians states that 14 years after his conversion he went again to Jerusalem.[Gal. 2:1–10] It is not completely known what happened during these so-called "unknown years," but both Acts and Galatians provide some partial details.[27] At the end of this time, Barnabas went to find Paul and brought him back to Antioch. [Acts 11:26]
When a famine occurred in Judea, around 45–46,[28] Paul and Barnabas journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial support from the Antioch community.[29] According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative center for Christians following the dispersion of the believers after the death of Stephen. It was in Antioch that the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians."[Ac. 11:26]
First missionary journey
Luke, the writer of the Acts,[30] arranges Paul's travels into three separate journeys. The first journey,[Ac 13-14] led initially by Barnabas, takes Paul from Antioch to Cyprus then southern Asia Minor (Anatolia), and back to Antioch. In Cyprus, Paul rebukes and blinds Elymas the magician[Ac 13:8-12] who was criticizing their teachings. From this point on, Paul is described as the leader of the group.[31] Antioch served as a major Christian center for Paul's evangelizing.[32]Second missionary journey
Paul leaves for his second missionary journey from Jerusalem, in late Autumn 49AD,[citation needed] where they were having a council with other apostles, and where the circumcision question was lifted up. On their trip around the Mediterranean sea, Paul and his companion Barnabas stopped in Antioch where they had a sharp argument about taking John Mark with them on their trips. It is mentioned in the book of Acts that John Mark had left them in a previous trip and went home; Paul didn’t think he was ready for this kind of evangelism. Paul and Barnabas decided to separate. Barnabas ended up taking John Mark with him, while Silas joined Paul. Paul and Silas traveled to a lot of different cities such as Tarsus, Derbe and Lystra. In Lystra, they met Timothy, a disciple who was spoken well of, and decided to take him with them. The Church kept growing, adding believers, and strengthening their faith daily (Acts 16:5). In Philippi, men who weren’t happy about the conversion of their slave turned the city against the missionaries and Paul and Silas were put in jail. After a miraculous earthquake, the gates of the prison fell apart and Paul and Silas were able to escape; this event led to the conversion of the jailor. They continued traveling, went by Berea and Athens where Paul preached to the Jews and Greeks; and in Corinth where Paul met Aquila and Priscilla who became faithful believers and helped Paul through his other missionary journeys. The couple followed Paul and his companions to Ephesus, and stayed there to start one of the strongest, and most faithful Church at that time. In 52AD, the missionaries sailed to Caeserea to greet the Church there, and traveled down to Antioch to stay there for about 1 year before leaving again on their third missionary journey.[33]Third missionary journey
Paul began his third missionary journey by traveling all around the region of Galatia and Phrygia to strengthen, teach and rebuke the believers. When he arrived in Ephesus, he stayed there for a little less than 3 years and performed a lot of miracles, like healing people and casting demons out. Then he went through Macedonia, went up to Greece, and as he was getting ready to leave for Syria, he changed his plans because of Jews who had made a plot against him, and had to go back through Macedonia. He finished his trip in Caeserea.[34][35][edit] Journey to Rome
Paul and his companions went on their journey to Rome, which was probably their last missionary journey, in 60AD. They started in Jerusalem where the brothers there received them joyfully. Paul was beaten and almost killed before he was arrested and kept as a prisoner in Caeserea for about 1 year and a half even before starting his journey. He was transferred to Rome after his request and was released after the Roman commander realized that he was born a Roman citizen. Paul continued to preach in Rome and possibly traveled to other countries like Spain and Britain before he died as a martyr in 68AD.[36]Persecution
A lot of plots were made against Paul in the last years of his life, and especially by Jews who would stir the crowd and excite them when Paul was preaching. He was beaten more than once, and put in prison. He was persecuted in every one of his missionary journeys. He was persecuted because of a “lack of understanding, preconceptions, irritations and provocation.”[37] The message of a risen Christ and Savior was extremely irritating for Jews as well as for gentiles who thought that Christianity was the religion of the ignorant. During his first missionary journey, Paul is stoned in the city of Lystra for healing a crippled man. Some Jews dragged him out of the city thinking he was dead but when his disciples came around him, he miraculously got up and went into the city. Paul was also put in prison while he was in Philippi and also in Jerusalem. Paul had to face some of the same struggles that missionaries from nowadays face. They probably had to adapt to different cultures, also had to learn different languages such as Greek, and different dialects from all over Macedonia, Syria or even Asia. He had to deal with different religions, and had to adapt his message to the receivers (example in Acts 17 in the aeropagus). As Jim Laws put it “Paul was a man, who was not ashamed of persecution and imprisonment.”[38]Paul's Method
Paul had a strategic method in evangelizing; and miracles were one of his methods. We can find 5 places in Acts where some of the miracles that Paul performed are recorded. He risked his life a couple times to perform these miracles and show God’s glory. Not all the miracles he performed were to proclaim the Gospel, some of them were to comfort the people, and to meet their physical needs. He followed Jesus’ method of meeting people’s physical needs when that was what they needed before everything, and meeting their spiritual needs when it was what was needed.[39] Paul didn’t use the miracles to attract people to Christianity, he was giving an example of what Christian love should be. He also used the miracles to attract hearers so that they could hear Paul’s preaching; it was also something that was approved to be from a divine nature, it confirmed Paul’s message to be “divine”, from God. Paul made use of a finance strategy. Contrary to a lot of missionaries from today, he didn’t seek financial support for himself. Paul didn’t want to create the confusion that religion was a sort of trade by asking for money; like some philosophers did. He didn’t want to burden his disciples by demanding financial support. He did receive gifts sometimes but never sought for it. He knew how to be content with what he had. Not only was he not seeking for support, but he wasn’t bringing it either to other churches. All the Churches were financially independent. Paul used his preaching gift as a method to bring unbelievers to Christ. We have three examples of Paul’s preaching in Acts. He preached in the synagogue to Jews, and also preached to Gentiles (Acts 17). There are four characteristics particular to Paul and his way of preaching :- Great compassion toward the hearers, their difficulties, theirs needs, their beliefs and their doctrines.
- Courage in acknowledging that there are difficulties that cannot be avoided.
- Respect for the audience. He treated them like humans who are in spiritual need as much as him and as Christians in general.
- Confidence in the Truth of his message and its power.[40]
Council of Jerusalem
Main article: Council of Jerusalem
Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, in Paul's letters, and some appear in both.[43] For example, the Jerusalem visit for famine relief[Acts 11:27–30] apparently corresponds to the "first visit" (to Cephas and James only).[Gal. 1:18–20][43] F. F. Bruce suggested that the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than the first visit to Jerusalem.[44]
Incident at Antioch
Main article: Incident at Antioch
Despite the agreement achieved at the Council of Jerusalem as understood by Paul, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted Peter, also called the "Incident at Antioch" over Peter's reluctance to share a meal with Gentile Christians in Antioch.[45]Writing later of the incident, Paul recounts: "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong". Paul reports that he told Peter: "You are a Jew, yet you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew. How is it, then, that you force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs?"[Gal. 2:11–14] Paul also mentions that even Barnabas (his traveling companion and fellow apostle until that time) sided with Peter.[46]
The final outcome of the incident remains uncertain. The Catholic Encyclopedia states: "Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that Peter saw the justice of the rebuke." In contrast, L. Michael White's From Jesus to Christianity claims: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as persona non grata, never again to return."[47]
The primary source for the Incident at Antioch is Paul's letter to the Galatians.
Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles
This table is adapted from White, From Jesus to Christianity.[43] Note that the matching of Paul's travels in the Acts and the travels in his Epistles is done for the reader's convenience and is not approved of by all scholars.| Acts | Epistles |
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Resumed mission
Around 50-52, Paul spent 18 months in Corinth.[13] The reference in Acts to proconsul Gallio helps ascertain this date.[13] Here he worked with Silas and Timothy.[13]After Corinth, the next major center for Paul's activities was Ephesus.[13] Ephesus was an important center for early Christianity from the year 50, see also Early centers of Christianity#Western Anatolia. From 52 to 54, Paul lived here, working with the congregation and apparently organizing missionary activity into the hinterlands.[51] Paul's time here was marked by disturbances and possibly imprisonment. Finally, he was forced to leave.[13]
Next, he traveled to Macedonia[52] before going probably to Corinth for three months (56-57) before his final visit to Jerusalem.[13] Though Paul wrote that he visited Illyricum, he meant what would now be called Illyria Graeca[53] that was part of the Roman province of Macedonia, which is now modern day Albania.[54]
Arrest and death
The Acts recounts that on the way to Rome he was shipwrecked on "Melite" (Malta),[13] [Acts 28:1] where he was met by Publius[Acts 28:7] and the islanders, who showed him "unusual kindness".[Acts 28:2] He arrived in Rome c 60 and spent two years under house arrest.[13][Acts 28:16] All told, during his ministry the Apostle Paul spent roughly 5½ to 6 years as a prisoner or in prison.
Irenaeus of Lyons in the 2nd century believed that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed Linus as succeeding bishop.[55] Though not a bishop of Rome, Paul is highly responsible for bringing Christianity to Rome.
In June 2009, Pope Benedict announced excavation results concerning the tomb of Paul at the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls. The sarcophagus itself was not opened but was examined by means of a probe. It revealed pieces of incense and purple and blue linen as well as small bone fragments. The bone was radiocarbon dated to the 1st to 2nd century. According to the Vatican, this seems to confirm the tradition of the tomb being Paul's.[57]
Roman citizenship
The basis of Paul's Roman citizenship is reported in various and many chapters of the Book of Acts:- Acts 16:37-39. But Paul said to the officers: "They beat us publicly without a trial, even though we are Roman citizens, and threw us into prison. And now do they want to get rid of us quietly? No! Let them come themselves and escort us out." The officers reported this to the magistrates, and when they heard that Paul and Silas were Roman citizens, they were alarmed. They came to appease them and escorted them from the prison, requesting them to leave the city.
- Acts 22:25-29 - As they stretched him out to flog him, Paul said to the centurion standing there, "Is it legal for you to flog a Roman citizen who hasn't even been found guilty?" When the centurion heard this, he went to the commander and reported it. "What are you going to do?" he asked. "This man is a Roman citizen." The commander went to Paul and asked, "Tell me, are you a Roman citizen?" "Yes, I am," he answered. Then the commander said, "I had to pay a big price for my citizenship." "But I was born a citizen," Paul replied. Those who were about to question him withdrew immediately. The commander himself was alarmed when he realized that he had put Paul, a Roman citizen, in chains.
- Acts 23:23-27/ - Then he called two of his centurions and ordered them, "Get ready a detachment of two hundred soldiers, seventy horsemen and two hundred spearmen[b] to go to Caesarea at nine tonight. Provide mounts for Paul so that he may be taken safely to Governor Felix." He wrote a letter as follows: Claudius Lysias, To His Excellency, Governor Felix: Greetings. This man was seized by the Jews and they were about to kill him, but I came with my troops and rescued him, for I had learned that he is a Roman citizen.
- Acts 25:11-12- If, however, I am guilty of doing anything deserving death, I do not refuse to die. But if the charges brought against me by these Jews are not true, no one has the right to hand me over to them. I appeal to Caesar!" After Festus had conferred with his council, he declared: "You have appealed to Caesar. To Caesar you will go!" Only Roman citizens could appeal directly to Caesar.
- Acts 25:24-25-Festus said: "King Agrippa, and all who are present with us, you see this man! The whole Jewish community has petitioned me about him in Jerusalem and here in Caesarea, shouting that he ought not to live any longer. I found he had done nothing deserving of death, but because he made his appeal to the Emperor I decided to send him to Rome. Again, only Roman citizens could appeal directly to Caesar.
- Acts 26:32- Agrippa said to Festus, "This man could have been set free if he had not appealed to Caesar." Again, only Roman citizens could appeal directly to Caesar.
Writings
Main article: Pauline Epistles
Thirteen epistles in the New Testament are traditionally attributed to Paul, of which seven are almost universally accepted, three are considered in some academic circles as other than Pauline for textual and grammatical reasons, and the other three are in dispute in those same circles.[17] Paul apparently dictated all his epistles through a secretary (or amanuensis), who would usually paraphrase the gist of his message, as was the practice among 1st-century scribes.[17][18] These epistles were circulated within the Christian community, where they were read aloud by members of the church along with other works. Paul's epistles were accepted early as scripture and later established as Canon of Scripture. Critical scholars regard Paul's epistles (written 50-62)[citation needed] to be the earliest-written books of the New Testament. They are referenced as early as c. 96 by Clement of Rome.[58]Authorship
Main article: Authorship of the Pauline Epistles
Paul's letters are largely written to churches which he had visited; he was a great traveler, visiting Cyprus, Asia Minor (modern Turkey), mainland Greece, Crete, and Rome. His letters are full of expositions of what Christians should believe and how they should live. He does not tell his correspondents (or the modern reader) much about the life of Jesus; his most explicit references are to the Last Supper[1 Cor. 11:17-34] and the crucifixion and resurrection.[1 Cor. 15] His specific references to Jesus' teaching are likewise sparse,[1 Cor. 7:10-11] [9:14] raising the question, still disputed, as to how consistent his account of the faith is with that of the four canonical Gospels, Acts, and the Epistle of James. The view that Paul's Christ is very different from the historical Jesus has been expounded by Adolf Harnack among many others. Nevertheless, he provides the first written account of what it is to be a Christian and thus of Christian spirituality.
Of the thirteen letters traditionally attributed to Paul and included in the Western New Testament canon, there is little or no dispute that Paul actually wrote at least seven, those being Romans, First Corinthians, Second Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, First Thessalonians, and Philemon. Hebrews (no relation to the Gospel according to the Hebrews), which was ascribed to him in antiquity, was questioned even then, never having an ancient attribution, and in modern times is considered by most experts as not by Paul (see also Antilegomena). The authorship of the remaining six Pauline epistles is disputed to varying degrees.
The authenticity of Colossians has been questioned[59] on the grounds that it contains an otherwise unparalleled description (among his writings) of Jesus as 'the image of the invisible God,' a Christology found elsewhere only in John's gospel. On the other hand, the personal notes in the letter connect it to Philemon, unquestionably the work of Paul. Internal evidence shows close connection with Philippians.[60] Ephesians is a very similar letter to Colossians, but is almost entirely lacking in personal reminiscences. Its style is unique. It lacks the emphasis on the cross to be found in other Pauline writings, reference to the Second Coming is missing, and Christian marriage is exalted in a way which contrasts with the reference in 1 Cor. 7:8-9. Finally, according to R.E. Brown, it exalts the Church in a way suggestive of a second generation of Christians, 'built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets' now past.[61] The defenders of its Pauline authorship argue that it was intended to be read by a number of different churches and that it marks the final stage of the development of Paul of Tarsus's thinking. It has to be noted, too, that the moral portion of the Epistle, consisting of the last two chapters has the closest affinity with similar portions of other Epistles, while the whole admirably fits in with the known details of St. Paul's life, and throws considerable light upon them.[60]
2 Thessalonians, like Colossians, is questioned on stylistic grounds, with some[citation needed] noting, among other peculiarities, a dependence on 1 Thessalonians yet a distinctiveness in language from the Pauline corpus. This, again, is explainable by the possibility of St. Paul requesting one of his companions to write the letter for him under his instructions.[60]
Atonement
Main article: Atonement in Christianity
Paul wrote down much of the theology of atonement.[63] Paul taught that Christians are redeemed from the Law (see Supersessionism) and from sin by Jesus' death and resurrection.[63] His death was an expiation; as well as a propitiation, and by Christ's blood, peace is made between God and man.[63] By baptism, a Christian shares in Jesus' death and in his victory over death, gaining, as a free gift, a new, justified status of sonship.[63]Relationship with Judaism
Main article: Paul of Tarsus and Judaism
Some scholars see Paul (or Saul) as completely in line with 1st-century Judaism (a "Pharisee" and student of Gamaliel), others see him as opposed to 1st-century Judaism (see Marcionism), while still others see him as somewhere in between these two extremes, opposed to "Ritual Laws" (see for example Circumcision controversy in early Christianity) but in full agreement on "Divine Law". These views of Paul are paralleled by the views of Biblical law in Christianity.Paul's theology of the gospel accelerated the separation of the messianic sect of Christians from Judaism, a development contrary to Paul's own intent.[13] He wrote that the faith of Christ was alone decisive in salvation for Jews and Gentiles alike, making the schism between the followers of Christ and mainstream Jews inevitable and permanent.[13] He successfully argued that Gentile converts did not need to become Jews, get circumcised, follow Jewish dietary restrictions, or otherwise observe Mosaic laws.[13] Nevertheless, in Romans he insisted on the positive value of the Law, as a moral guide.
E. P. Sanders' publications[64] have since been taken up by Professor James Dunn who coined the phrase "The New Perspective on Paul"[65] and N.T. Wright,[66] the Anglican Bishop of Durham. Wright, noting a difference between Galatians and Romans, the later being much more positive about the continuing covenant between God and his ancient people than the former, contends that works are not insignificant but rather proof of attaining the redemption of Jesus Christ by grace (free gift received by faith)[Rom. 2:13ff] and that Paul distinguishes between works which are signs of ethnic identity and those which are a sign of obedience to Christ.
World to come
Paul believed that Jesus would return within his lifetime.[19] He expected that Christians who had died in the mean time would be resurrected to share in God's kingdom, and he believed that the saved would be transformed, assuming supernatural bodies.[19]Paul's teaching about the end of the world is expressed most clearly in his letters to the Christians at Thessalonica. Heavily persecuted, it appears that they had written asking him first about those who had died already, and, secondly, when they should expect the end. He assures them that the dead will rise first and be followed by those left alive.[1 Thes. 4:16ff] This suggests an imminence of the end but he is unspecific about times and seasons, and encourages his hearers to expect a delay.[67] The form of the end will be a battle between Jesus and the man of lawlessness[2 Thess. 2:3] whose conclusion is the triumph of Christ.
Role of women
Main article: Paul of Tarsus and women
A verse in the first letter to Timothy, 1 Timothy 2:12 ("I suffer not a woman"), traditionally attributed to Paul, is often used as the main biblical authority for prohibiting women from becoming ordained clergy and or holding certain other positions of ministry and leadership in Christianity, though Paul's authorship of this letter is debated. The Letter to Timothy is also often used by many churches to deny women a vote in church affairs, reject women from serving as teachers of adult Bible classes, prevent them from serving as missionaries, and generally disenfranchise women from the duties and privileges of church leadership.[68] The apparent message of this verse may seem anachronistic to 21st century Western societies with their emphasis on gender egalitarianism and non-discrimination. 11Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection.
12But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence.
13For Adam was first formed, then Eve.
14And Adam was not deceived, but the woman being deceived was in the transgression.
12But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence.
13For Adam was first formed, then Eve.
14And Adam was not deceived, but the woman being deceived was in the transgression.
Influence on Christianity
Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more significant than any other New Testament author.[11] Paul declared that faith in Christ made the Torah unnecessary for salvation, exalted the Christian church as the body of Christ, and depicted the world outside the Church as under judgment.[13]Lord's Supper
Paul's writings include the earliest reference to the supper of the Lord, a rite traditionally identified as the Christian Eucharist, as instituted by Christ at the Last Supper.Eastern tradition
In the East, church fathers reduced the element of election in Romans 9 to divine foreknowledge.[13] The themes of predestination found in Western Christianity do not appear in Eastern theology.Western tradition
Augustine's foundational work on the gospel as a gift (grace), on morality as life in the Spirit, on predestination, and on original sin all derives from Paul, especially Romans.[13]In the Reformation, Martin Luther expressed Paul's doctrine of faith most strongly as justification by faith alone.[13] John Calvin developed Augustine's predestination into double predestination.[13]
Modern theology
In his commentary The Epistle to the Romans (Ger. Der Römerbrief; particularly in the thoroughly re-written second edition of 1922) Karl Barth argued that the God who is revealed in the cross of Jesus challenges and overthrows any attempt to ally God with human cultures, achievements, or possessions. Some theologians believe this work to be the most important theological treatise since Friedrich Schleiermacher's On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers.As in the Eastern tradition in general, Western humanists interpret the reference to election in Romans 9 as reflecting divine foreknowledge.[13]
Church tradition
1 Clement, a letter written by the Roman bishop Clement of Rome, around the year 90 reports this about Paul:[75]
"By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith, having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance."Commenting on this passage, Raymond Brown writes that while it "does not explicitly say" that Paul was martyred in Rome, "such a martyrdom is the most reasonable interpretation."[76]
Eusebius of Caesarea, who wrote in the 4th century, states that Paul was beheaded in the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. This event has been dated either to the year 64, when Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few years later, to 67. The San Paolo alle Tre Fontane church was built on the location where the execution was believed to have taken place. A Roman Catholic liturgical solemnity of Peter and Paul, celebrated on June 29, may reflect the day of his martyrdom, other sources have articulated the tradition that Peter and Paul died on the same day (and possibly the same year).[77] The apocryphal Acts of Paul, the apocryphal Acts of Peter suggest that Paul survived Rome and traveled further west. Some hold the view that he could have revisited Greece and Asia Minor after his trip to Spain, and might then have been arrested in Troas, and taken to Rome and executed.[2 Tim. 4:13] A tradition holds that Paul was interred with Saint Peter ad Catacumbas by the via Appia until moved to what is now the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome. Bede, in his Ecclesiastical History, writes that Pope Vitalian in 665 gave Paul's relics (including a cross made from his prison chains) from the crypts of Lucina to King Oswy of Northumbria, northern Britain. However, Bede's use of the word "relic" was not limited to corporal remains.
Paul, who was quite possibly martyred in Rome, has long been associated with that city and its church. Paul is the patron saint of London.
Critical views
Main article: Pauline Christianity
Elaine Pagels, professor of religion at Princeton University and an authority on Gnosticism, argues that Paul was a Gnostic [78] and that the anti-Gnostic Pastoral Epistles were "pseudo-Pauline" forgeries written to rebut this.British Jewish scholar Hyam Maccoby contends that the Paul as described in the Book of Acts and the view of Paul gleaned from his own writings are very different people. Some difficulties have been noted in the account of his life. Paul as described in the Book of Acts is much more interested in factual history, less in theology; ideas such as justification by faith are absent as are references to the Spirit, according to Maccoby. He also points out that there are no references to John the Baptist in the Pauline Epistles, although Paul mentions him several times in the Book of Acts.
Others have objected that the language of the speeches is too Lukan in style to reflect anyone else's words. Moreover, some have argued that the speeches of Peter and Paul are too much alike, and that especially Paul's are too distinct from his letters to reflect a true Pauline source.[79] Despite these suspicions, historian-attorney Christopher Price concludes that Luke's style in Acts is representative of those ancient historians known for accurately recording speeches in their works. Examination of several of the major speeches in Acts reveals that while the author smoothed out the Greek in some cases, he clearly relied on preexisting material to reconstruct his speeches. He did not believe himself at liberty to invent material, but attempted to accurately record the reality of the speeches in Acts.[79]
F. C. Baur (1792–1860), professor of theology at Tübingen in Germany, the first scholar to critique Acts and the Pauline Epistles, and founder of the Tübingen School of theology, argued that Paul, as the "Apostle to the Gentiles", was in violent opposition to the original 12 Apostles. Baur considers the Acts of the Apostles were late and unreliable. This debate has continued ever since, with Adolf Deissmann (1866–1937) and Richard Reitzenstein (1861–1931) emphasising Paul's Greek inheritance and Albert Schweitzer stressing his dependence on Judaism.
Professor Robert Eisenman of California State University, Long Beach argues that Paul was a member of the family of Herod the Great.[81] Professor Eisenman makes a connection between Paul and an individual identified by Josephus as "Saulus," a "kinsman of Agrippa."[82] Another oft-cited element of the case for Paul as a member of Herod's family is found in Romans 16:11 where Paul writes, "Greet Herodion, my kinsman." This is a minority view in the academic community.
Among the critics of Paul the Apostle was Thomas Jefferson who wrote that Paul was the "first corrupter of the doctrines of Jesus."[83] Howard Brenton's 2005 play Paul takes a skeptical view of his conversion.
F.F. Powell argues that Paul, in his epistles, made use of many of the ideas of the Greek philosopher Plato, sometimes even using the same metaphors and language.[84] For example, in Phaedrus, Plato has Socrates saying that the heavenly ideals are perceived as though "through a glass dimly."[85] These words are echoed by Paul in 1 Corinthians 13:12.
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